Indian medicinal plants are referred to as the “nectar of life” owing to their phytochemicals and bioactive complexes that are beneficial in treating diseases. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a global health issue without any proper medication. The indigenous plants of India can be exploited to control the precise signs of SARS-CoV-2. The Ministry of AYUSH (Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, and Homeopathy) has advised routine usage of medicinal plants for COVID-19. Medicinal plants like
The ancient system of Indian Medicines is one of the world’s oldest medicinal practices. Sushruta Samhita, Atharvaveda, Charak Samhita, and Rigveda are some of the ancient Indian writings that mention using medicinal plants to treat illnesses. Worldwide, different medicinal herbs and plants from India are used for their curative qualities. In India, there are roughly 16,000–17,000 flowering species, of which 6,000 have medicinal qualities. Approximately 80% of the world’s population’s medical needs are satisfied by herbal medicine. The acceptance of herbal drugs was aided by factors such as antimicrobial resistance, a lack of an efficient drug regimen, the unavailability of conventional drugs, etc. (
There was a spike in research after the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic broke out in an effort to develop cures or medications for it. The current COVID-19 global pandemic triggered by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) might be controlled with the aid of Indian medicinal plants and their phytochemicals. Numerous Indian medicinal plants with powerful pharmacological properties can be repurposed for COVID-19 therapy and prevention (
A comprehensive understanding of plants and their phytochemicals effective in can SARS-CoV-2 lead to obtaining promising drug leads for COVID-19. The objective of this review is to understand the efficacy of Indian medicinal plants and their phytoconstituents in suppressing the symptoms of COVID-19. This review will help students and scientists to develop and discovers novel drugs effective in COVID-19 from conventional Indian medicinal plants.
Coronaviruses are composed of long RNA polymers bound by nucleocapsids. Coronavirus spreads via several routes, including aerosolized transmission, fecal-oral transmission, droplets, and surface transmission. COVID-19 affects multiple organs like the lungs, heart, etc. The symptoms of COVID-19 range from slight to severe respiratory distress with fever, cough, headache, sore throat, myalgia, headache, fatigue, and breath shortness. Infections can develop into respiratory failure, pneumonia, and also even death. Acute lung and renal injury and shock are common. This evolution is caused by inflammatory cytokines like granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, interferon γ-induced protein-10, macrophage Inflammatory Proteins1A, Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, interleukin (IL)2, IL7, IL10, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α (
COVID-19 is diagnosed by identifying SARS-CoV-2 through PCR testing from nasopharyngeal swabs (
The Ministry of AYUSH (Ayurveda, Yoga and Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, and Homeopathy) suggests various COVID-19 treatment modalities based on symptoms and stage. It suggests using basil, cinnamon, black pepper, raisins, and jaggery or lemon juice decoction to boost immunity. Turmeric in milk is also recommended. Some simple ayurvedic procedures recommended include nasal application of sesame oil/coconut oil and swill in the mouth as oil-pulling therapy. Steam inhalation of fresh mint leaves or caraway seeds is recommended during a dry cough or sore throat. Cough/throat irritation can also be relieved by combining clove with natural sugar or honey (
It is a poly-herbal formulation established by CCRAS, Ministry of AYUSH, Government of India. The preparation contains four ingredients with antiviral, antipyretic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties. It halts the life-threatening inflammatory retorts in COVID-19, leading to substantial morbidity. AYUSH-64 is included in the National COVID supervision procedure, Government of India, built on Ayurveda and Yoga for asymptomatic and mild cases of COVID-19 (
Ayush recommends the second formalization. Some of the ingredients include Guduchi, ginger, Ajwain, clove, Dusparsha, Malabar nut, Kusta,
In comparison to synthetic drugs like ivermectin, lopinavir, ritonavir, oseltamivir, hydroxychloroquine, and azithromycin, these phytocompounds demonstrate a higher binding affinity for 3CLpro. Another molecular docking study of Kabasura Kudineer bioactive phytoconstituents demonstrated that phytocompounds such as clerodane 6,7 dione, β-amyrin, furanolactone, berberine, piperlongumine, sesamine, lupeol, piperine, and β-sitosterol have a more binding affinity for the main protease enzyme of SARS-CoV-2 and the phytocompounds like clerodanedione, β-sitosterol, beta amyrin,
This ayurvedic formulation was mentioned in a Ministry of AYUSH advisory to combat COVID-19 and is being used as a therapeutic option for patients with COVID-19. AYUSH Kwath may be the drug of choice in the treatment of COVID-19, implying its role in prophylactic, curative, and therapeutic care. It is made up of Tulsi, Dalchini, Sunthi, and Krishna Marich. Sacred Orchid. TNF, cytokines storm, i.e., upregulation of proinflammatory cytokines in the blood like interleukin IL-1, IL-6, and TNF, was inhibited by
Sudarshan Ghanvati is a highly recommended formula for the prevention of mild to moderate fevers caused by coughing, colds, allergies, indigestion, and diarrhea. It stimulates the liver, aids in blood detoxification, and improves digestion. It is used for the treatment of fever caused by dyspepsia, anorexia, fatigue, and nausea It increases immunity to fight allergens and infections. It contains Chitrak, Ashwagandha, Turmeric, Clove, Black Pepper, Nut Grass, and Ginger, and it aids in the development of immunity. It relieves body aches and combats fatigue, stress, and anxiety. It helps treat respiratory infections and alleviates tuberculosis symptoms. It reduces inflammation or swelling caused by an injury, improves digestion, and reduces stomach acidity. Sudarshan Ghanvati contains antibiotic, anti-inflammatory, and expectorant properties; therefore, this herbal proprietary preparation is useful in treating the common cold, persistent cough, and flu, and can thus help with COVID-19 symptoms. The bio-active mechanisms of the perfumed herbs help to boost immunity and prevent bacterial infestation (
It is a traditional and proprietary ayurvedic medication designed specifically to treat and manage respiratory and digestive disorders. In Ayurveda, Talispatra, Chitrak, Jeera, Chavya, Tintidika, Tejpata, Dalchini, Elaichi, and jaggery are used to treat the common cold virus and are very helpful for releasing nasal discharge, congestion, irritation, and inflammation. This preparation is also beneficial for sneezing, cough, sore throat, breathing troubles, and allergic rhinitis. It is also extremely beneficial in the treatment of bronchitis, asthma, sinusitis, and other respiratory ailments. With potent antimicrobial, antibacterial, and antiseptic properties, this incredible herbal concoction plays a critical role in preventing various infections. It also decreases the risk of dengue, fever, tuberculosis, and bacterial and fungal infections (
Thus, these Indian medicinal plants have a holistic approach to combat the COVID-19 pandemic. Global research on Indian medicinal herbs for COVID-19 has found the efficacy of its active phytoconstituents (
For thousands of years,
It is also popular as the “King of Spices” because it contains numerous bioactive constituents like flavonoids, terpenes, phenolics, and sterols with therapeutic properties like analgesic, antiplatelet, antihypertensive, anticancer, antioxidant, and so on. The essential oil profile of seeds of black pepper contains a high amount of caryophyllene, sabinene, α-pinene, limonene, β-bisabolene, etc. Pepper leaves possess a high amount of nerolidol, α-pinene, and nerolidol. Piperine, being the main bioactive component, augments the beneficial effects of several nutrients, vaccines, and drugs through the increase in bioavailability by inhibiting numerous digestive enzymes. It inhibits the exudation of hepatitis B virus surface antigen (HBsAg) and hepatitis B virus e antigen with remarkable HBV activity (HBeAg) (
Tumeric
The common name of
Traditionally, the herb
Through
Inhibiting the SARS-COV-2 infection is accomplished through numerous mechanisms, including the antiviral effect regulating the stage of viral entry, gene replication, and formation of mature functional proteins. It may be an effective triple target receptor inhibitor to halt the launch of SARs-COV-2, ACE-2, host cell TMPRSS2 receptors, and virus Spike protein. The use of
Natural phytochemical components are of particular interest among the many inhibitory substances introduced against coronaviruses via the. Plant secondary and primary metabolites are being investigated as possible coronavirus inhibitory medicaments. The IC50 value (the concentration at which 50% of enzyme activity is lost), molecular docking score, and binding energy are all parameters used to determine a metabolite’s ability to inhibit a specific virus. Polyphenols, alkaloids, terpenoids, organosulfur compounds, saponins, essential oil, saikosaponins, lectins, nicotianamine, etc., are examples of secondary plant metabolites (
Many animal models demonstrated a defensive effect against acute lung injury.
Also, the anti-inflammatory effect of
These selected flavonoids have a better absorption rate. Their volume of distribution at steady-state, skin permeability, central nervous system permeability, and blood-brain barrier permeability were also examined because they have an important role in drug distribution. Among the various cytochromes P450 (CYPs) enzymes, cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) was discovered to be inhibited by flavonoids, implying that these flavonoids may be metabolized in the liver (
ProTox-II, which calculates median lethal dose (LD50) values and toxicity classes, was also used to predict the toxicity of the selected flavonoids. The LD50 values and toxicity classes of 37 flavonoids predicted by ProTox-II are mentioned in
The relationship between docking score and IC50 value was investigated, and for the majority of molecules, the docking score was negative, indicating that they have better druggability (
The traditional medicinal plants of India are a highly advantageous alternative herbal remedy for COVID-19. According to general AYUSH recommendations, medicinal plants with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and antiviral properties are useful for both the prevention and supportive treatment of COVID-19. The current review lists several important Indian medicinal plants that have been tested experimentally against COVID-19 and details the claimed plants’ active phytochemicals in addition to the antiviral research that has been conducted on them globally. The antiviral properties of these herbal remedies can be clarified with the aid of bioinformatics databases and tools. The effectiveness of the phytoconstituents in Indian medicinal plants is also demonstrated by the safety factors and inhibitory concentrations. Combining them all, the literature review contends that COVID-19 disease can be beaten by combining traditional and modern sciences.
The authors received no specific funding for this study.
The authors confirm contribution to the paper as follows: study conception and design: S.C., M.I., H.D.M.C. and S.P.; data collection: E.F.F.M.; analysis and interpretation of results: I.C.P.N.; C.L.G.R. and E.M.d.A.; draft manuscript preparation: R.S.d.A. and H.D.M.C. All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.
The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
Not applicable.
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest to report regarding the present study.
Sl. No. | Scientific name Common name | Geographical location | Parts used | Phytoconstituents | Images | Mechanism of action in COVID-19 | Reference | |
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1 | Sub-Himalayan tracts from Jammu eastwards and western peninsula | Stem, Latex leaf, barks, stems, roots | Picrinine, nareline, akuammicine, scholarine, strictamine | These plants prevent COVID-19 from developing into severe inflammatory responses, which progress to significant morbidity. | The results of a molecular docking study showed that Mpro-Akuammicine N-Oxide, which has the highest Mpro binding energy, and 34 other phytoconstituents with comparable antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2, were present. | |||
2 | Himalayan regions of India, China, Pakistan, Bhutan, and Nepa | Root | Iridoids, cucurbitacin, acetophenones | |||||
3 | Temperate Himalayas | Whole Plant | Ophelicacid, oleic acid, chiratin, palmitic acid, stearic acid | |||||
4 | Subtropical and tropical regions of Southeast Asia | Leaves, |
Bonbucin, Sitosterol, Phytosterol, Heptocosanc |
Sl. No. | Name of the plant Common name Family | Geographical location | Part used | Phytoconstituents | Mechanism of action in COVID-19 | Effects | Other health benefits | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia’s tropics | Leaves, whole plant, oil | Ocimumosides A & B, carvacrol, apigenin, rosmarinic acid, |
Improves hemoglobin concentration and activity, increases SRBC, decreases CoX-2 and LoX-5 enzyme activity, and inhibits the NF-Kb classical pathway. | Antiviral, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, antistress, anticancerous hypoglycaemic, hypolipidemic properties | Respiratory & cardiovascular disorders, fever, wound, diabetes, kidney stone, skin problems, asthma | ||
2. | Maritime Southern Asia Australia, Asia | Rhizome | Gingerols and parasols gingerols, shogaols, paradols | Boosts antiviral immune responses, have direct anti-SARS-CoV-2 effects, and inhibits macrophage and inflammasome-facilitated inflammatory effects. | Antiobesity, antidiabetic, neuroprotective, cardiovascular protective, antimicrobial, respiratory protective, antioxidant, and anticancer activities | Headaches, respiratory disorders, colds, nausea, emesis, cardiovascular diseases, obesity | ||
3. | Malabar Coast of India, |
Dried seeds | α-pinene, α & β-phellandrene, sabinene, 3-carene, D-limonene, caryophyllene | Augment immunomodulatory effect, enzymatic activity, WBC count, antioxidant, bioavailability enhancer, lipid peroxidation, and inhibit adipogenesis | Antioxidant inflammatory, and antimicrobial, cardio-protective, reno-protective, and antibacterial, antifungal properties | Cold, cough, worms, intermittent fever, dysentery, dyspnea, throat diseases, stomachache, piles | ||
4. | Native to Sri Lanka. |
Dried inner bark of the tree | Eugenol, cinnamaldehyde, cinnamyl acetate, copane, camphor. | Suppresses the phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases, Jun N-terminal kinases in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 macrophages. and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (p38 MAPK). | Antimicrobial, wound healing, antioxidative anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory actions | Diabetic, HIV, anxiety, Parkinson’s disease | ||
5. | India, Italy, central Asia, France | Bulbs | Allicin, alliin, diallyl disulfide, diallyl trisulfide, diallyl sulfide, ajoene | Significant upsurges in CD4 + and CD8 + T cells, stimulation of NK cells, reductions in leptin receptor, leptin, IL-6, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma concentrations. | Anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, neuroprotective, immunomodulatory, anticancer, hepatoprotective, antitumoral, and renal protective properties | Intestinal worms, diabetes, facial paralysis, liver disorders, fevers, tuberculosis, tumors, bronchitis, dysentery rheumatism, colic | ||
6. | Southwest Asia, India | Seeds | Thymoquinone, dithymoquinone, nigellone, thymol hymohydroquinone, | Increasing serum IFN-γ and CD4+ helper T cell numbers affects antibody titer, serum immunoglobulins, eosinophil count, Th1/Th2 balance, and cytokine profiles. | Immunomodulator, analgesic, hepato-protective, renal protective, gastro-protective, antioxidant antimicrobial, appetite stimulant properties | Antihypertensive, liver tonics, spasm, diarrhea, diuretics, digestive, skin disorders | ||
7. | South or Southeast Asia, India, China | Rhizomes (underground stems) | Curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, and bisdemethoxycurcumin | Effective triple target receptor inhibitor to halt the launch of SARS-CoV-2, angiotensin converting enzyme-2 (ACE-2), host cell TMPRSS2 receptors, and virus Spike protein. | Antioxidant, antifertility, antidepressant, anti-neuroprotective, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, and immunomodulatory, properties | Urticaria, dermatitis, hepatitis infection, jaundice, menstrual troubles, hematuria, inflammatory joints, sore throat, cancer, wounds, allergy, dermatophytosis, flatulence, hemorrhage | ||
8. | India | Root, stems, and leaves of the whole plant | Tinocordiside, tinocordifolioside, berberine, tembertarine, tinosporin, magniflorine, palmatine, | Reduces the symptoms induced through viral infections like pulmonary inflammation through p38 MAPK pathways. | Antipyretic, anti-allergic, immunomodulatory, hypoglycemic, antineoplastic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties | Fever, jaundice, cancer, pain, asthma, gout, poisonous insect, snake bite, eye disorders, dysentery, bone fracture, chronic diarrhea, viral hepatitis, skin disease, | ||
9. | India, Africa, Middle East. | Leaves, bark, root, flower, stem, seed | Withanolides, cuscohygrine | Restrict inflammatory response in COVID-19 hyperinflammation by controlling cytokine expression, altering inflammatory receptor proteins, and blocking the NF-B pathway. | Aphrodisiac, liver tonic, anti-inflammatory agent, astringent, anti-diabetic, gastroprotective actions | Stress, strain, fatigue, pain, diabetes, bronchitis, asthma, ulcers, skin diseases, emaciation, insomnia, senile dementia | ||
10. | India, Sri Lanka, |
Aerial parts, roots | Andrographolide, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, cinnamic acid | Significantly reduced the amount of SARS-CoV-2 infectious virions produced. | Antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, hepato-& reno-protective, antioxidant, cytotoxicity, insecticidal, immunostimulant, antiprotozoan, antiangiogenic actions | Jaundice, cancer, ulcer, leprosy, colic, influenza, bronchitis, skin diseases, dyspepsia, malaria, diabetes, high blood pressure, flatulence, dysentery | ||
11. | India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Vietnam, China | Fruit, root | Piperine, sitosterol, piplatine | Possibly attach to ACE2 and competitively prevent viral entry and binding. | Immunomodulatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, antiulcer | Malaria, cholera, dysentery, indigestion, abdominal colic, poisoning, anorexia diarrhea, and stomach complaints. | ||
12. | South Asia, Malaysia, Indonesia. | Nimbin, Epinimbin | Leaves, flowers, seeds, fruits, roots, bark | Significantly reduces newly emerged human—Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 infection and replication |
Immunomodulatory, antibacterial, antiulcer, antioxidant, antifungal, antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antihyperglycemic | Malaria, loss of appetite, stomach, and leprosy, skin ulcers, intestinal ulcers, eye disorders, skin disorders, intestinal worms | ||
13. | South-East Asia, | Plumbagin | Fresh root and as well as a dry drug (root), whole plant | Decreases ROS, plumbagin inhibits viral entry into host cells and causes viral RNA degradation, acting as an antiviral therapeutic. | Antidiabetic, anti-obesity, antioxidant, antifertility, antimalarial, wound healing, anti-sickling, memory-inducing activities | Stubborn chronic rheumatoid arthritis, skin diseases | ||
14. | Seeds | Southern Asia and India: | α-terpinyl acetate | Significantly lower innate inflammatory cytokine (IL-6 and TNF-) gene expression levels. | Anti-inflammatory, anticancer, carminative, antioxidant, detoxifier, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial activities | Cancer, multiple sclerosis, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis | ||
15. | Tejpata | Dried leaves | Eugenol, myrcene, methyl eugenol, limonene, α-pinene, p-cymene, camphene | Restricted the SARS-CoV2 infection in hamsters’ lungs’ viral entry and replication. | Antimutagenic, antifungal, antithrombotic, anticarcinogenic, antibacterial, vasodilatory | Bad odor from mouth, dental caries, black spots on the face, throat infection |
Phytochemicals present in Indian medicinal plants | ||
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Sl. No. | Compound | IC50 value (µM) | Targets of SARS-CoV-2 | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Methyl eugenol | 1.74 ± 0.06 | Surface spike glycoprotein (6VSB) | |
2 | Oleanolic acid | 2.04 ± 0.16 | ||
3 | Ursolic acid | 1.59 ± 0.06 | ||
4 | Epoxyazadiradione | 4.71 ± 0.26 | ||
5 | Gedunin | 4.53 ± 0.21 | ||
6 | Methyl eugenol | 2.42 ± 0.07 | RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (6M71) | |
7 | Oleanolic acid | 2.99 ± 0.15 | ||
8 | Ursolic acid | 2.94 ± 0.13 | ||
9 | Epoxyazadiradione | 6.72 ± 0.39 | ||
10 | Gedunin | 5.35 ± 0.13 | ||
11 | Methyl eugenol | 0.79 ± 0.06 | Main Protease (6Y84) | |
12 | Oleanolic acid | 0.67 ± 0.03 | ||
13 | Ursolic acid | 0.53 ± 0.03 | ||
14 | Epoxyazadiradione | 2.94 ± 0.28 | ||
15 | Gedunin | 0.35 ± 0.02 | ||
16 | Tetrandrine | 0.33 ± 0.03 | Suppressing human coronavirus (HCoV)-OC43 replication and viral S and N protein expression | |
17 | Fangchinoline | 1.01 ± 0.07 | ||
18 | Ceparanthine | 1.01 ± 0.07 | ||
19 | Kaempferol | 116.3 ± 7.1 | Binding to 3CLpro | |
20 | Quercetin | 52.7 ± 4.1 | ||
21 | Isoliquiritigenin | 61.9 ± 11.0 | ||
22 | Kaempferol | 16.3 ± 2.1 | Binding to PLpro | |
23 | Quercetin | 8.6 ± 3.2 | ||
24 | Isoliquiritigenin | 24.6 ± 1.0 | ||
25 | Indigodole B | 2.09 ± 0.89 | Blocking the PLP 2 activity of HCoV NL63 | |
26 | Tryptantrin | 0.06 ± 0.04 | ||
27 | Scutellarein | 0.86 ± 0.48 | Inhibiting ATPase activity of nsP13 | |
28 | Myricetin | 2.71 ± 0.19 | ||
29 | Baicalein | 0.47 ± 0.09 | Binding to ATPase domain of nsP13 | |
30 | Scutellarein | 2.71 ± 0.19 |