TY  - EJOU
AU  - Jiang, Shan 
AU  - You, Wenxin 
AU  - Zhang, Haoran 
AU  - Xuan, Shichang 
AU  - Shen, Jiaxing 

TI  - When Federated Learning Meets Large Language Models: Taxonomy, Challenges, and Opportunities
T2  - Computers, Materials \& Continua

PY  - 
VL  - 
IS  - 
SN  - 1546-2226

AB  - Large Language Models (LLMs) have been playing a transformative role in natural language understanding and generation, yet adapting LLMs to domain-specific and privacy-sensitive data remains challenging under centralized training. Federated Learning (FL) provides a promising alternative by enabling training LLMs collaboratively without sharing raw data. However, integrating FL and LLMs introduces new challenges, including model size, device heterogeneity, non-IID data, and alignment requirements. This survey offers a structured overview of the federated LLM ecosystem. We present a comprehensive taxonomy encompassing system architectures, advanced data strategies for addressing heterogeneity, and retrieval-augmented generation in federated contexts. Additionally, we review efficient adaptation methods that enable LLM tuning on resource-constrained clients and analyze data security and privacy concerns. We conclude by summarizing emerging applications in healthcare, industry, software engineering, and finance, and by outlining open problems and research opportunities for scalable, secure, and responsible federated LLM deployment.
KW  - Large language models; federated learning; foundation models; federated large language models

DO  - 10.32604/cmc.2026.079321