[picture] | Sound & Vibration | [picture]

DOI: 10.32604/sv.2024.046723

REVIEW

Soundscapes in Arab Cities: A Systematic Review and Research Agenda

Tallal Abdel Karim Bouzir¹,*, Djihed Berkouk²,³, Theodore S. Eisenman⁴, Dietrich Schwela⁵, Nader Azab², Mohammed M. Gomma²,⁶ and Samiha Boucherit⁷

1 Institute of Architecture and Urban Planning, Blida University, Blida, 09000, Algeria
2 Hekma School of Engineering, Computing and Design, Department of Architecture, Dar Al-Hekma University, Jeddah, 22246, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
3 Department of Architecture, Biskra University, Biskra, 07000, Algeria
4 Department of Landscape Architecture and Regional Planning, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, USA
5 University of York, Environment Department, Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI), York, UK
6 Department of Architectural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Aswan University, Aswan, 81542, Egypt
7 Department of Architecture and Industrial Design, Università degli Studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Aversa, CE, 81031, Italy
Corresponding Author: Tallal Abdel Karim Bouzir. Email: bouzir_tallal@univ-blida.dz
Received: 12 October 2023; Accepted: 13 December 2023; Published: 31 January 2024

Abstract: In the context of Arab cities, this study explores the intricate interplay between cultural, historical, and environmental elements that shape their unique soundscapes. The paper aims to shed light on this underrepresented field of study by employing a three-fold research approach: systematic review, a comprehensive literature review, and the formulation of a future research agenda. The first part of the investigation focuses on research productivity in the Arab world regarding soundscape studies. An analysis of publication trends reveals that soundscape research in Arab cities is still an emerging area of interest. Critical gaps in the existing body of literature are identified, highlighting the importance of addressing these gaps within the broader context of global soundscape research. The second part of the study delves into the distinctive features that inform the soundscapes of Arab cities. These features are categorized into three overarching groups: (i) cultural and religious life, (ii) daily life, and (iii) heritage and history, by exploring these factors, the study aims to elucidate the multifaceted nature of Arab urban soundscapes. From the resonating calls to prayer and the vibrant ambiance of traditional cafes to the bustling markets and architectural characteristics, each factor contributes to the auditory tapestry that defines Arab cities. The paper concludes with a forward-looking research agenda, proposing sixteen key questions organized into descriptive and comparative categories. These questions emphasize the need for a more profound understanding of sound perception, sources, and the impact of urban morphology on the soundscape. Additionally, they highlight the need for interdisciplinary research, involving fields such as urban planning, architecture, psychology, sociology, and cultural studies to unravel the complexity of Arab urban soundscapes.

Keywords: Soundscape; Arab cities; traditional architecture; cultural identity; Arab urban morphology

1  Introduction

The term “Arab world” refers to a geographically and politically defined region that is characterized by a shared language and culture. Consisting of 22 countries that are members of the Arab League [1], this region spans 13.14 million km², or about 10% of the Earth’s surface. It is home to a population of 456.8 million, constituting 5.8% of the world’s population [1–4].

This diverse region, with its long history spanning thousands of years and rich culture, has played a significant role in shaping the unique identity of Arab cities. The influence of various civilizations such as the Roman, Persian, and Ottoman empires, as well as more recent colonial power like the British, Italian and French has contributed to this identity [5,6]. Additionally, the Muslim religion has also had a major impact on the social, economic, architectural, and urban aspects of Arab cities [7–9]. Moreover, the climate has left its mark on the identity of Arab cities by contributing to shaping traditional architecture and urban planning [10–13]. The cities in this region are the result of an interaction between harsh climatic conditions, social and economic needs, and various historical factors [14,15].

Among other parameters, the soundscape is closely linked to the identity and intangible heritage of cities because it allows residents and visitors to experience a unique atmosphere that reflects the culture, history, and traditions of the city [16,17], especially in the Arab region [18–20]. Within this context, this study focuses on the subject of soundscape, which is a relatively new concept developed in 1977 by the Canadian researcher Schaefer in his book “The Soundscape, our sonic environment and the tuning of the world,” to describe all sounds perceived by humans in their environment and without positive or negative judgment [21]. Moreover, Farina has defined it as an acoustic composition resulting from a voluntary or spontaneous combination of natural and/or urban sounds [22,23]. The ISO 12913 series on soundscape, specifically Part 1 (ISO 12913–1:2014), defines it as “an acoustic environment which is perceived or experienced and/or understood in its context by one or more persons” [24]. Soundscape research goes beyond simply considering the sound environment as a potential source of nuisance, as is approached in the field of noise pollution. Instead, it focuses on the interaction between human perception and the physical sound environment, exploring how sounds influence our auditory experience and our relationship with the space around us [25].

This study is a comprehensive exploration of the soundscape of Arab cities. By delving into the distinct dimensions of the sound environment of these cities, we shed light on the unique acoustic features shaped by a convergence of cultural [26–29], historical, and environmental influences, including architectural design, social and cultural practices [3,18,19,30,31]. In the face of rapid urbanization and the influence of global architectural trends, it is imperative to underscore the crucial need to preserve this auditory heritage [17,32,33], which extends beyond a mere collection of urban sounds. The acoustic landscape of Arab cities, as a living archive of the history, culture, and traditions of the region, is at risk of erosion. It constitutes an essential part of the identity of these cities, which face contemporary challenges.

This systematic research will lay the foundation for a deeper exploration and preservation of the auditory heritage of Arab cities. It aims to thoroughly analyze several key aspects, including the presence of topics in the scientific literature, identification of predominant trends, highlighting existing gaps, and proposing a research agenda for future studies. Ultimately, this study raises awareness about the significance of the soundscape in preserving the cultural identity of Arab cities while warning of the threats that loom over this precious acoustic legacy, such as rapid urban development, economic crises, armed conflicts, and the imposition of global architectural trends. The fragility of this auditory heritage in the face of these challenges underscores the urgency of this research. By comprehensively understanding and documenting the soundscape of Arab cities, we hope to contribute to its long-term preservation, ensuring that future generations can continue to enjoy this rich auditory expression of the history, culture, and traditions of the region, aligning with sustainability perspectives.

2  Methods

This study adopts a three-part methodological approach. Firstly, a systematic review is conducted to examine existing studies, evaluate the presence of this research topic in the region, identify current trends, and highlight remaining gaps [34,35]. A comprehensive search of relevant literature is performed in the Scopus database, which provides a wide range of information including title, author, institution, country, abstract, keywords, references, citations, and impact factor [34–36].

In our search, the following query was submitted to the Scopus database: TITLE-ABS-KEY (soundscape) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (the 22 Arab countries listed in Table 1 (country by country)). language = all; year = all; document type = all (for an overview of scientific publications). No time limits for the search were applied. The last search was performed on 16 December 2022. While using two or three databases is a common approach in systematic review studies, the Scopus database alone was shown to be effective in covering the most relevant literature in built environment studies, and acoustics more specifically [37,38].

In this systematic review methodology, rigorous inclusion criteria were systematically applied to refine the selection process. These criteria comprised three essential components: (1) a specific emphasis on studies addressing the subject of soundscape; (2) a geographical context requirement, mandating that studies be conducted within the Arab world or include case studies in the Arab region; (3) a strict inclusion of only peer-reviewed journal articles. The systematic application of these criteria, illustrated in Fig. 1, ensured a methodically thorough exploration of the topic during the systematic review. The assessment of the eligibility of the studies was performed independently in a non-blinded standardized manner by two reviewers.

Figure 1: Flow of information through the different phases of the systematic review

Data were extracted from each included study regarding (1) the country where the study was conducted/designed; (2) the publication year; (3) the journal of publication; (4) the language of the paper; (5) sponsorship details; (6) the author’s affiliation; (7) the methodology, indicating whether the study relied on measurements, software simulations, and/or surveys with users; (8) case studies and the studied cities; (9) the factors influencing the soundscape. The Vosviewer software was utilized to visualize the collected data.

Secondly, a literature review was conducted to identify and describe the typical characteristics and key elements that shape the soundscape of Arab cities. This exploration involved examining the role of architectural design, urban planning, cultural practices, and historical factors in the formation of the soundscape. Finally, this study provides perspectives and suggests potential avenues for future research by identifying gaps in our current understanding of the subject and highlighting areas that require further investigation.

3  Results and Discussion

As described in the previous section, this research adopts a three-part methodological approach. The presentation and discussion of the results align with the same logic as follows: a comprehensive review of existing studies, the identification of key soundscape elements in Arab cities, and, lastly, the formulation of a research agenda proposal.

3.1 Assessing Research Productivity in the Field of Soundscape in the Arab World

The search through the Scopus databases returned 19 results. After removing duplicates, the abstracts of 18 records were read by two authors and 10 items were excluded because the topic of the papers was not relevant (e.g., different research field) and/or did not address the review research question. The full texts of the remaining 8 papers were accessed and 1 of them was excluded because it failed to meet the eligibility criteria. The remaining 7 papers were included in the review. Fig. 1 summarizes the selection process of the review records.

3.1.1 Trends in Soundscape Research in the Arab World: Publication Years and Distribution by Country

The exploration of soundscape research in the Arab world reveals a nuanced trajectory over the past two decades. The thematic emergence began in 2003 with an article in “Acta Acustica Stuttgart,” delving into the soundscape of the ancient city of Constantine in Algeria [39]. This pioneering work initiated formal research on the soundscape theme, marking its introduction approximately two decades ago. However, a noticeable gap ensued, with 17 years passing without substantial publications on the subject, as illustrated in Fig. 2. The resurgence of interest in 2020 witnessed the publication of three articles focusing on Algerian Oasis’s soundscape (El Kantara and Sidi Okba) and the urban soundscape of city of Bejaia [20,41], followed by an article on the soundscape of the parks in the City of Sheikh Zayed in Egypt in 2021 [42], and two additional articles concentrating on Skikda and Biskra in Algeria in 2022 [43,44].

Figure 2: Annual number of soundscape studies published internationally (data from [36]) and in the Arab world

Despite this resurgence, the comparative analysis of limited publications (7) in the Arab world on the subject of soundscape over the past decade, as summarized in Table 2, against the extensive global literature documented in the study titled “Visualizing the Knowledge Domain in Urban Soundscape” (encompassing over 3000 publications on soundscape) [36], highlights a stark disproportion. Arab researchers’ scientific contributions account for only 0.2% of the global scientific literature. This emphasizes the urgent need to consistently foster and support research on the Arab soundscape to make a substantial impact on advancing this field.

By focusing on Arab urban soundscapes, researchers can develop a comprehensive understanding of their unique characteristics, effectively address noise-related challenges, and ultimately enhance the quality of life, public health, and environmental sustainability in Arab cities.

Furthermore, our investigation into the Scopus database further emphasizes a concentrated focus on soundscape studies in only two of the 22 Arab countries—Algeria and Egypt. Algeria, with a total of six studies, has been a primary locus of exploration. Egypt, comparatively, has seen limited exploration, with a recent study. These findings underscore a significant gap in soundscape research across most Arab countries, underscoring the urgency to continue and expand studies in this field. A comprehensive overview of soundscape research distribution in Arab countries is presented in Table 3.

In terms of the zones studied in Arab research, researchers have primarily focused on urban areas. Five studies have been conducted on the soundscape of public spaces in the cities of Biskra and its oases, Constantine, and Bejaia. In addition, two studies have examined the soundscape of cafeteria terraces and urban parks in the cities of Skikda (Azzaba) and Sheikh Zayed, respectively.

These results highlight the limited attention given to research on urban soundscape in the Arab world, in contrast to the international academic landscape. While in-depth studies are conducted on various case studies, including tourist zones, historical blocks, university campuses, and hospital outdoor spaces, other research areas are also explored. Some studies focus on the correlation between the soundscape and different aspects of life such as health and comfort. Other studies examine the methods and techniques used to evaluate and analyze the soundscape. An expanding research field involves the development and application of methods elaborated by the ISO series on soundscape. Furthermore, review articles and systematic reviews on this subject are increasingly published, aiming to deepen the understanding of this theme by analyzing published studies to determine research trends. On an international scale as well, several studies specifically focus on the indoor soundscape, seeking to elucidate this phenomenon within buildings, especially in public spaces [19,36–38,45–48].

3.1.2 Journals

The analysis of journal co-citations is an important tool for understanding the influence of individual journals in a specific research field [36,49]. It helps researchers gain insights into the most influential journals and easily access relevant information. In the context of research on soundscape in the Arab world, this analysis has revealed that publications on this subject are not concentrated in a specific journal (Table 4). Instead, the seven articles studied were published in different journals. The first article appeared in Acta Acustica (Stuttgart) in 2003 and the most recent article was published in Environmental Research, Engineering and Management in 2022. It is worth noting that only four of these articles are freely accessible, while the others are behind paywalls. This could limit the dissemination of these research findings and their accessibility. Furthermore, it is important to note that unlike contexts such as Europe, America, Australia, and other developed countries where several specialized journals on environmental acoustics are edited by universities, associations, and research groups, none of the mentioned journals are edited by Arab institutions. This further emphasizes the need for greater involvement of Arab academic institutions and journals in promoting and supporting research on soundscape within the region. Such involvement could enhance the visibility and accessibility of Arab contributions in this field and foster collaboration among Arab researchers and institutions.

3.1.3 Language of Papers and Sponsor

The publication language of scientific articles is influenced by various factors, including the predominant language in the research field, editorial and national policies, the intended audience, and collaborations on an international scale [50,51]. In the field of soundscape studies, most articles published in the Arab world are in English, with the exception of one research study published in French in Algeria, which is the country’s second national language. The publication of research in Arabic languages is limited within the scientific community due to the scarcity of Scopus-indexed scientific journals and the low international recognition of research published in these languages. The majority of researchers in the Arab-speaking world choose to publish their research in English to increase the visibility and impact of their work within the international scientific community.

While language choices significantly shape the dissemination of soundscape research in the Arab world, the financial landscape poses another critical dimension to the development of this field. Sponsors play a crucial role in funding research studies due to the substantial costs and resource requirements involved [52]. However, it is important to note that, according to the analysis of the studied research in the Scopus database, no sponsors have provided support for soundscape research in Arab countries, even in the wealthiest ones like Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. This lack of financial support may contribute to the limited number of publications in this field and could potentially discourage researchers from pursuing soundscape studies.

3.1.4 Co-country Analysis and Main Contributing Institutions

In the context of urban soundscape research in the Arab world, this study examines the international collaboration network and showcases the relationships among various countries. Six countries actively participated in this research endeavor. The publication count ranking is as follows: Algeria (6 publications), Italy (3 publications), Saudi Arabia (2 publications), Egypt (1 publication), and France (1 publication). Notably, Algeria, Italy, and Saudi Arabia emerge as pivotal hubs for international collaboration in scientific research on urban soundscape in the Arab world. However, it is important to highlight the limited overall participation of Arab countries, with Algeria standing out as the most active contributor. This analysis emphasizes the potential for collaboration and progress in the field of urban soundscape in the Arab world, underscoring the need for broader engagement and involvement from a more diverse array of Arab and non-Arab countries.

By analyzing Table 5, which provides a comprehensive summary of institutional contributions to soundscape research in the Arab world, we can observe that Algerian institutions, particularly the Department of Architecture at Biskra University and the Institute of Architecture and Urban Planning at Blida University, stand out with their high level of contribution. Both institutions have produced 4 documents and obtained 11 citations, indicating recognition for their research in the field of soundscape. The University della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli” in Italy, with its Department of Architecture and Industrial Design, has contributed with 3 documents. Although the number of citations is relatively low, the total link strength is 5, suggesting significant collaborations with other institutions, particularly Algerian universities in Biskra and Blida. On the other hand, Egyptian institutions such as the Department of Architectural Engineering at Cairo University and the Department of Architecture at the Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology at Onaizah Colleges, along with the German University in Cairo, have all contributed with 1 document. However, their total link strength is 2, indicating less involvement in international collaborations. Research laboratories such as the ABE Laboratory at Constantine 3 University and the RNAMS Laboratory at Oum El Bouaghi University in Algeria have both contributed with 1 document, with a total link strength of 2. Some institutions, like the University of Sétif in Algeria and the School of Design and Architecture at Dar Al-Hekma University in Saudi Arabia, have a low contribution in terms of documents and total link strength.

3.1.5 Keyword Co-Occurrence Analysis

Keywords play a crucial role in summarizing information about the subject and main content of a research paper. They also highlight research trends by analyzing their temporal evolution [36]. In exploring the most important research areas in the literature on urban soundscape, this section analyzes the temporal variations in centrality and frequency of co-occurring keywords. The graphical representation of these keywords in Arab world studies (Fig. 3) reveals two central focal points: the soundscape and public space, which are interconnected through direct and indirect links with other keywords. Surrounding these central points, five clusters emerge, primarily comprising keywords from the same thematic family. However, it is worth noting some limitations, such as the absence of keywords related to nature, sound sources, and human perception. This analysis enhances our understanding of the key themes addressed in the literature on urban soundscape in the Arab world, identifies priority research areas, and highlights future exploration prospects.

Figure 3: Cluster map of author keywords

The first pole, which is solely related to the public space, includes the word “soundscape” grouped with “binaural recording” and “noise measurement”. Two other poles serve as a link between the soundscape and the public space are consist of the keywords “social representation” and “space appropriation”. Additionally, two other keywords relating to “public health” and “pandemic” come from a study conducted in 2021, which explored the impact of COVID-19 on the soundscape. Two other poles linked with “soundscape” encompass words such as “road noise”, “noise pollution”, “walkability” and “audio visual interaction” are present.

Notably, when comparing the international research landscape on this subject, it is observed that there are certain gaps in the list of keywords extracted from soundscape research in the Arab world including the absence of keywords related to nature, sound sources and human perception, ISO. Concerning the temporal analysis of the evaluation of keywords over time, it has not been feasible due to the relative recency of this subject in Arab countries, starting practically in 2020.

This analysis provides valuable insights into the research on urban soundscape in the Arab world. Firstly, it identifies two central themes: the soundscape and public space, which are interconnected through various keywords. The formation of five keyword clusters surrounding these central themes highlights the existence of cohesive research areas within the literature. Additionally, the presence of bridging concepts, such as “social representation” and “space appropriation,” emphasizes the interplay between the soundscape and public space. However, the absence of keywords related to nature, sound sources, and human perception suggests potential gaps in the literature. To address these limitations, future research can explore these neglected areas and further deepen our understanding of the urban soundscape in the Arab world.

3.2 Typical Features of Arab Cities that Inform Soundscapes

Arab cities have unique characteristics as a logical consequence of their ancient history marked by several different eras and their varied and rich culture results from the interaction of several micro-cultures within a large region as well as their geography. This has had an impact on their soundscapes, giving them a distinct sound identity. Through the analysis of numerous studies and research on the soundscape (see Table 2), several key factors have been identified that shape the overall acoustic environment. These factors can be summarized as follows:

Firstly, the nature of sound sources and the presence rate of different sound types, namely biophony (sounds from living organisms), geophony (sounds from natural elements), and anthrophony (sounds generated by humans) [31]. Secondly, the physical characteristics of the environment, particularly the urban morphology. Additionally, seasonal variations, time of day and weather conditions introduce temporal variations into the soundscape. Furthermore, daily life, use of space, human activities, interactions, and the cultural identity associated with a particular space shape the character of the soundscape [53]. The history of a space also leaves its imprint on its soundscape. Other important parameters include individual factors such as sound identification based on hearing levels, perception of sound sources, and individual preferences and needs. Moreover, the physical characteristics of the acoustic environment, psychological factors, and contextual elements such as surrounding activities, time of day, and weather conditions all contribute to shaping the soundscape. These typical features that inform the soundscapes of Arab cities can be categorized into three overarching groups.

3.2.1 Cultural and Religious Life

a) Calls to prayer and church bells

The call to prayer, known as the Athan, is one of the most distinctive and frequent sounds in Arab cities [54,55]. Five times a day it is sounded from the high minarets of mosques through loudspeakers to announce the time of Muslim prayer [56]. The Athan serves as both a temporal and spatial marker. It helps organize daily life in society and its singing style can vary across different regions [57,58]. While the lyrics remain the same, subtle differences in tone, rhythm, and intonation can be easily noticed. Experts can even identify the region based on the sound of the Athan [54,59]. Fig. 4 illustrates this by showing the spectrograms of the Athan from different regions, highlighting the differences in sound characteristics such as duration, amplitude, and frequency [60]. This variation contributes to cultural diversity, influences the sound identity of Arab cities, fosters a sense of belonging for members of the Muslim community, and adds an element of exoticism for foreign visitors.

Figure 4: Spectrograms of Adhan from different Arab regions (Adhans soundtrack from [61]). A: Adhan of the holy mosque in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. B: Adhan of the Dafna mosque in Qatar. C: Adhan of the Medina mosque in Medina, Saudi Arabia. D: Adhan of the Muscat mosque in Oman. E: Adhan of the Tunis mosque in Tunisia

Church bells also contribute to the soundscape in the Arab world [21,62], but to a lesser degree than the Adhan. In areas where Muslim and Christian communities coexist, the sound of church bells may be heard alongside the Muslim call to prayer. This creates a mixture of sounds that can be musically unique and that gives a specific sound identity to these regions such as the case of Egypt and Lebanon, where it is not uncommon to hear church bells coexisting with the adhan (see Fig. 5) [62–64].

Figure 5: Spectrogram of a soundscape comprising the Adhan (Islamic call to prayer) and the ringing of church bells resound simultaneously from Beirut, Lebanon (soundtrack from [65])

b) Religious celebrations

Religious celebrations such as Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha, Ashura and Christian celebrations in some countries hold great significance in the Arab world since ancient times [66]. These celebrations involve events organized by the community. The nature of these celebrations varies from one region to another, even in the same country. As a result, Arab countries exhibit a unique and lively atmosphere in the neighborhoods, squares, and city centers during these public festivities. The celebrations include public gatherings, songs, prayers, traditional music, fireworks, and other customs. This soundscape is closely tied to the religious and cultural identity of the community, promoting a sense of belonging [28,53,67].

c) Mosques

Mosques are Muslim places of worship that have been a central feature of Arab cities since ancient times [26,68]. Their architecture, size, activity and location can significantly impact the surrounding soundscape, as noted by Barakat in his research [69]. He suggests that there may be a relationship between the sound of the Athan and the shape of the city, which requires further investigation [70]. As mentioned earlier, the regular calls to prayer broadcast from the minarets of the mosques create a special soundscape in the surrounding neighborhoods. Additionally, the overlapping adhan sounds from multiple mosques create a complex panoramic soundscape [53,71–73]. The same applies to the prayers, many of which are broadcast live through the minaret’s loudspeakers, especially during Ramdan and other religious events. This broadcasts have a longer lasting influence on the soundscape of Arab cities compared to of the Athan [74,75].

In addition to prayer, mosques also offer venues for various public events that contribute to the soundscape and unique sound identity of Arab cities. These venues can be used for religious and cultural events such as weddings, funerals and public awareness platforms. They also serve as educational spaces with regular Quran recitation and preaching sessions [74].

d) Traditional cafes

Traditional cafes play a significant role in shaping the soundscape of Arab cities, giving them a unique auditory character. These cafes are important social centers where people gather to have conversations and participate in cultural activities, creating a vibrant and dynamic environment [76–78]. The lively discussions, laughter, music and the sounds of smoking shisha and playing traditional dice games contribute to the overall soundscape of the urban landscape [41,44]. For example, in cities like Cairo and Marrakech, traditional cafes in the medina area contribute to the soundscape, not only influencing the auditory experience of Arab cities but also reflecting the cultural identity and heritage of these dynamic urban spaces [79–83]. The presence of traditional cafes not only shapes the auditory experience of Arab cities, but also mirrors their cultural identity and heritage, showcasing the dynamic nature of these urban spaces.

3.2.2 Daily Life and Businesses

a) Lively traditional markets

The market or the souk is another key element of the soundscape of Arab cities, especially the traditional ones. It serves as an important public, economic and symbolic space, and has been a structural element of the city since ancient times. Typically situated in the heart of the city alongside other important features like the mosque and the madressa (religious educational establishments) [53,84–86], the traditional souks are bustling centers of commerce and social interaction. The soundscape of these areas is characterized by a cacophony of sounds of vendors shouting, customers negotiating prices and the sounds of carts transporting goods through the narrow alleys difficult to access by car [84,87–89].

Souks often have specialized areas for different types of goods, such as spices, fabrics, and jewelry. Each area has its own set of sounds [26,39,89,90]. For example, in the spice souk, we hear the sounds of pouring, mixing and grinding spices. In other traditional souks like the Jemaâ El Fna square souk in Morocco and the souk of the old town of Constantine in Algeria, that the soundscape is also marked by the noise that comes from artisanal trades such as the noises of boilermakers and artisanal carpentry [39,80,81].

Visiting the Arab souks is a multi-sensorial experience that encompasses unique elements of light, smell, and temperature. Similarly, the soundscape of markets is also distinctive and is often associated with the sound identity of Arab cities. For visitors, these sounds play a crucial role in the overall cultural experience [39,80,81].

b) Arts and crafts

Craftsmanship also plays a vital role in shaping the urban soundscapes of Arab cities. This is particularly evident in in public squares, streets of traditional neighborhoods and markets [53,80,81]. Depending on their craft, artists have a knack of producing sounds that seamlessly merge with the existing urban sounds, resulting in a vibrant, intricate, and one-of-a-kind auditory experience [39,53].

3.2.3 Heritage and History

a) The architecture of Arab cities

The acoustic environment of cities, including Arab cities, has been greatly influenced by their urban design [91–94]. These cities share key charactestics such as an organic layout, high building density, and narrow, human-scaled streets [26,29,95,96]. This arrangement promotes reverberation and sound amplification within neighborhoods, while also providing protection against external noises, such as traffic from the surrounding roadways [93,97]. Furthermore, the presence of large central squares, typically housing a souk (marketplace) and a mosque, contributes to a vibrant and dynamic soundscape in these cities [30,80,81]. Additionally, the integration of features such as fountains, Arabic gardens, courtyards, and traditional architectural elements like arches and vaults also plays a significant role in shaping the unique acoustic environment by introducing sounds and influencing the behavior of sound waves in public spaces [20,31,41,53].

b) Fountains

Fountains have often played an important role in shaping the soundscape and sound identity of Arab cities, especially in their historic centers. According to several studies [98–100], the pleasant sound of water flowing from these fountains not only adds to their acoustic identity, but also enhances the overall ambiance of these locations. Additionally, the fusion of these sounds with other elements, such as traditional musicians, craftsmen and street vendors sounds, has contributed to the creation of the urban Arab unique soundscape [26,27].

c) Public place

The public square has been a significant and integral part of urban planning in Arab cities since antiquity. it also plays a vital role in shaping social, cultural and religious life [26,29,95,96]. The soundscape of these traditional public squares is typically a mix of diverse sounds, creating a unique sonic identity that mirrors the pace and activities of daily life. This includes calls to prayer, vendor chatter, the sounds of craftsmen work, sounds from economic activities and traffic noises.

The Jemaa el-Fna square in Marrakech, Morocco, located at the entrance to the medina, is classified as a world heritage site by UNESCO. This place exemplifies the relationship between the soundscape and the public square, characterized by sounds from cultural, social, economic and religious activities. These include the sounds of adhan, traditional music and performances, the sounds of food vendors and handicrafts, and the lively sounds of the crowds. This unique combination of sounds gives Jemaa el-Fna a distinct sonic identity, which is an integral part of its non-material heritage [80,81,86,101]. It is important to highlight that this intangible heritage is also recognized and classified as an acoustical heritage. Therefore, it should be considered in perspectives on heritage protection, emphasizing the significance of preserving this cultural richness for future generations [102–104].

3.3 A Research Agenda for Studying Arab Urban Soundscapes

Preliminary findings from this research suggest that there is a gap in the exploration of the soundscape of Arab cities. Therefore, it is crucial to further emphasize this topic in order to improve the understanding of its fundamental aspects, components, and distinctive features. For directing further research in this field, the following sixteen key questions, organized in two categories (descriptive and comparative), can be considered (see Table 6).

The first group of issues focuses on the descriptive approach and analysis of the soundscape in Arab cities. The goal is to understand the soundscape as a whole and identify the relationship between morphological characteristics, the particularity of life, and the soundscape.

Studying the perception and sound experiences of residents and visitors in Arab cities (issue 1) can help us understand how the soundscape is perceived and experienced in different urban areas. This is important because it provides information on subjective preferences and attitudes towards sounds, and how they affect the well-being and quality of life of individuals. Exploring noise sources and their characteristics in Arab cities is also crucial (issue 2). Researchers can aim to identify key components of the soundscape, considering the diversity of sources, their spatial and temporal variations, and their impact on residents’ quality of life. This will help (i) identify prominent noise sources and develop effective interventions for noise pollution management; (ii) improve overall quality of life; (iii) preserve cultural heritage; (iv) contribute to urban planning. Additionally, identifying specific sound characteristics and patterns in Arab cities will help preserve cultural identity and create unique sound environments.

Another interesting subject to study is the impact of the specific morphological characteristics of Arab cities on their urban soundscape (issue 3). Elements such as urban density, building height, traditional architecture, street layout and building materials can influence sound propagation, reflection and the overall acoustic environment. Understanding these effects in the context of Arab cities will help develop urban planning and architectural strategies that promote a more pleasant soundscape while preserving cultural identity. On the other hand, studying the impact of the soundscape on urban life (issue 4) is another intriguing area for future studies. Understanding how the soundscape in Arab cities affects social interactions, behaviors, activities, and perceptions of safety and comfort is essential for urban planning. By evaluating these interactions, it will be possible to design urban environments that promote conviviality and encourage positive social interactions.

Soundscape planning and design (issue 5) is an important research topic that has several gaps in the scientific literature. It is crucial to seek strategies and interventions to enhance the soundscape in Arab cities in order to promote a better quality of life. By incorporating sound considerations into urban planning, architectural design and the management of public spaces will help to create more harmonious and pleasant sound environments. Examining best practices and experiences from other cities or cultures will help identify effective approaches that can be adapted to the specific context of Arab cities. Furthermore, it is important to examine the laws and regulations concerning the management of the soundscape in Arab cities (issue 6). Analyzing the presence of policies and legal measures to control and manage the urban soundscape is a crucial step, as it will identify potential gaps in current legislation and provide recommendations for improving legal and regulatory frameworks. Equally important is the evaluation of the effectiveness of the implementation of these laws and regulations, and the resolution of problems encountered in their practical application.

On the other hand, conducting comparative research is crucial for gaining a thorough understanding of the soundscape of Arab cities in relation to other regions. This research should focus on identifying similarities and differences between Arab soundscape and that of other regions, to help to identify the influence of the historical and cultural aspects of the region on the current soundscape. Another important aspect is understanding the perception of Arab cities inhabitants towards the soundscape, which can be achieved by comparing it to the perception in other communities through international and multicultural research. One such study is already in progress is the Soundscape Attributes Translation Project (SATP) [105]. Given the vastness and cultural diversity of the Arab world, it is also important to compare soundscapes in different Arab regions, even within the same country, to identify the correlation between local traditions and lifestyles and the soundscape.

4  Limitations of the Study

The study has several limitations that should be acknowledged. First, it is important to recognize that the findings may not cover all the studies on soundscape in the Arab world. This is because the search was limited to studies published in the Scopus database and did not include potential studies from other databases or the gray literature. Second, the inclusion criteria focused only on studies published in peer-reviewed journals, which may have excluded valuable other sources like conference proceedings or books. Lastly, the selection process relied on the relevance of studies based on their title, keywords, and abstract, which could have led to the exclusion of relevant studies that did not use these terms in their abstract or title.

5  Conclusions

The exploration of the soundscape in Arab cities is an area of research that has been largely neglected, despite its increasing importance in recent years, especially in developed countries. This research, aims to address the lack of studies on this subject, which currently accounts for only 0.2% of the world’s scientific productivity. The research identifies and categorizes major questions and research directions that need to be addressed in order to enhance our understanding of soundscapes in Arabic cities. These questions and directions cans be groups into two groups, a descriptive component that focuses on perception, sound sources, and how the urban morphological characteristics influence the soundscape and its relationship with quality of life. On the other hand, a second strand of research proposed a series of comparative studies to contextualize soundscapes in Arab cities from a global perspective. By comparing historical and cultural influences, architectural styles and perceptions of residents with those of other regions and communities, we can gain unique insights and potentially identify best practices that can be adapted to the specific context of Arab towns.

This research agenda outlines 9 themes for future studies on soundscapes in Arab cities. It highlights the significance of interdisciplinary research, bringing together expertise from urban planning, architecture, psychology, sociology, and cultural studies. By addressing the research questions outlined, we can deepen our understanding of soundscapes in Arab cities and contribute to the creation of strategies and interventions that promote a more pleasant and sustainable acoustic environment while also preserving cultural identity.

Acknowledgement: The authors express their deep gratitude to all the participants who generously contributed by sharing their valuable ideas and perspectives on the soundscape of Arab cities during the development of this paper.

Funding Statement: The authors received no specific funding.

Author Contributions: The authors confirm contribution to the paper as follows: Study conception and design: T. S. Eisenman. T. A. K. Bouzir, D. Berkouk; data collection: T. A. K. Bouzir, D. Berkouk; analysis and interpretation of results: T. A. K. Bouzir, D. Berkouk. N. Azab. Mohammed M. Gomaa. S. Boucherit; draft manuscript preparation: T. A. K. Bouzir, D. Schwela, D. Berkouk, N. Azab, Mohammed M, Gomaa. S. Boucherit. All authors reviewed the results and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Availability of Data and Materials: This review paper relies on data obtained from previously published papers available online. Readers can access the relevant sources and bibliographic information cited in this paper for a comprehensive understanding of the data and materials used.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest to report regarding the present study.

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