TY  - EJOU
AU  - Sah, Ashok Kumar 
AU  - Choudhary, Ranjay Kumar 
AU  - Sabrievna, Velilyaeva Alie 
AU  - Dzhuraevich, Karomatov Inomdzhon 
AU  - Abbas, Anass M. 
AU  - Shalabi, Manar G. 
AU  - Siddique, Nadeem Ahmad 
AU  - Alshammari, Raji Rubayyi 
AU  - Trivedi, Navjyot 
AU  - Elshaikh, Rabab H. 

TI  - Male Breast Cancer: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Molecular Mechanisms, Therapeutics, and Future Prospective
T2  - Oncology Research

PY  - 2026
VL  - 34
IS  - 1
SN  - 1555-3906

AB  - Male breast cancer (MBC) is rare, representing 0.5%–1% of all breast cancers, but its incidence is increasing due to improved diagnostics and awareness. MBC typically presents in older men, is human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-negative and estrogen receptor (ER)-positive, and lacks routine screening, leading to delayed diagnosis and advanced disease. Major risk factors include hormonal imbalance, radiation exposure, obesity, alcohol use, and Breast Cancer Gene 1 and 2 (BRCA1/2) mutations. Clinically, it may resemble gynecomastia but usually appears as a unilateral, painless mass or nipple discharge. Advances in imaging and liquid biopsy have enhanced early detection. Molecular mechanisms involve hormonal signaling, HER2/epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) pathways, tumor suppressor gene alterations, and epigenetic changes. While standard treatments mirror those for female breast cancer, emerging options such as cyclin-dependent kinase 4 and 6 (CDK4/6), and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors, immunotherapy, and precision medicine are reshaping management. Incorporating artificial intelligence, molecular profiling, and male-specific clinical trials is essential to improve outcomes and bridge current diagnostic and therapeutic gaps.
KW  - Male breast cancer; epidemiology; diagnostic strategies; molecular profiling; therapeutic advances; precision oncology; prognostic biomarkers; multiomics; personalized medicine

DO  - 10.32604/or.2025.068238