Open Access

ARTICLE

Effect of Cyclic Loading Frequency on Liquefaction Behavior of Granular Materials: Insights from Discrete Element Simulations

Xin-Hui Zhou^1,2, Chao Yang^1,2, Yu-Xiang Cai^1,3, Yanfeng Zheng^1,2, Jin Guo⁴, Yao-Zhi Luo^1,2, Yan-Bin Shen^1,2,*

1 College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
2 Future City Laboratory, Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta, Zhejiang University, Jiaxing, China
3 Department of Civil and Smart Cities, Shantou University, Shantou, China
4 Power China Huadong Engineering Co., Ltd., Hangzhou, China

* Corresponding Author: Yan-Bin Shen. Email:

Computer Modeling in Engineering & Sciences 2026, 148(3), 9 https://doi.org/10.32604/cmes.2026.086395

Received 29 May 2026; Accepted 07 September 2026; Issue published 28 September 2026

Abstract

In this study, the two-dimensional discrete element method (DEM) was employed to investigate how the frequency of cyclic loading affects the liquefaction behavior of granular materials. A stress-controlled undrained cyclic biaxial loading method was implemented, and a series of numerical simulations were carried out across a wide range of loading frequencies. The simulation results reveal that cyclic loading frequency has negligible influence on the material’s behavior prior to liquefaction. However, it delays the development of excess pore water pressure and axial strain during and after liquefaction, a phenomenon referred to as the “delay effect”. This delay effect further contributes to an increase in the liquefaction resistance and alters the stress-strain curve and stress path after liquefaction. To interpret these macroscopic observations, the evolution of the internal microstructure was quantitatively characterized in terms of fabric anisotropy and the mechanical coordination number. The findings indicate that the delay in macroscopic behavior is closely associated with the slower evolution of the microstructure under higher loading frequencies. The underlying mechanism can be attributed to particle inertia: as the cyclic loading frequency increases, particle inertial forces progressively participate in load bearing and enhance orthogonal confinement within the granular skeleton. This reduces the driving force for contact structure disintegration and slows down the microstructural adjustment. Overall, this study provides insight into the micromechanical mechanisms that govern the effect of cyclic loading frequency on the liquefaction behavior of granular materials.

---

Keywords

---