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Open Access

ARTICLE

Porosity-Impact Strength Relationship in Material Extrusion: Insights from MicroCT, and Computational Image Analysis

Jia Yan Lim1,2, Siti Madiha Muhammad Amir3, Roslan Yahya3, Marta Peña Fernández2, Tze Chuen Yap1,*
1 School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University Malaysia, Putrajaya, 62200, Malaysia
2 School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, EH14 4AS, UK
3 Industrial Technology Division, Malaysian Nuclear Agency, Kajang, 43000, Malaysia
* Corresponding Author: Tze Chuen Yap. Email: email
(This article belongs to the Special Issue: Design, Optimisation and Applications of Additive Manufacturing Technologies)

Computers, Materials & Continua https://doi.org/10.32604/cmc.2025.070707

Received 22 July 2025; Accepted 23 October 2025; Published online 26 November 2025

Abstract

Additive Manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, has transformed conventional manufacturing by building objects layer by layer, with material extrusion or fused deposition modeling standing out as particularly popular. However, due to its manufacturing process and thermal nature, internal voids and pores are formed within the thermoplastic materials being fabricated, potentially leading to a decrease in mechanical properties. This paper discussed the effect of printing parameters on the porosity and the mechanical properties of the 3D printed polylactic acid (PLA) through micro-computed tomography (microCT), computational image analysis, and Charpy impact testing. The results for both tests were correlated to investigate the relationship between porosity and Charpy impact strength. PLA samples of 1 cm3 × 1 cm3 × 1 cm3 were 3D printed at printing temperatures of 180°C, 200°C, 220°C, and 240°C, and at printing speeds of 50, 80, and 110 mm/s, while porosity was measured from microCT-reconstructed data. Additionally, impact strength was assessed using a notched Charpy impact tester following ASTM D6610-18. In general, results show that higher printing temperatures and lower printing speeds reduced pore size by improving material flow and fusion, while also increasing impact strength due to better thermal bonding and interlayer adhesion. A maximum 36.8% reduction in mean pore size and a 114% improvement in impact strength were observed at 110 mm/s and 220°C. Conversely, increasing printing speed led to lower Charpy impact strength. Optimal impact behavior and minimal voids were observed at a printing temperature of 220°C and a printing speed of 50 mm/s.

Keywords

Additive manufacturing; fused filament fabrication; fused deposition modeling; material extrusion; 3D porosity; impact strength; polylactic acid

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