Open Access

ARTICLE

Optimization of Pyrolysis Temperature for Activated Carbon Production from Durian Shell and Eggshell for Energy Storage Applications

Fatin Nadhirah¹, Surajudeen Sikiru^1,2,*, Mohd Muzamir Mahat^1,3

1 School of Physics & Materials Studies, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM), Shah Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
2 Sustainable Energy Materials Group, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
3 School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore

* Corresponding Authors: Surajudeen Sikiru. Email: ,

(This article belongs to the Special Issue: Advances in Renewable Energy and Storage: Harnessing Hydrocarbon Prediction and Polymetric Materials for Enhanced Efficiency and Sustainability)

Energy Engineering 2026, 123(9), 15 https://doi.org/10.32604/ee.2026.082624

Received 19 March 2026; Accepted 15 April 2026; Issue published 06 August 2026

Abstract

Agricultural waste has received increased attention as a sustainable precursor for activated carbon manufacture because of its availability, inexpensive price, and ecological benefits. However, the search for the right biomass and optimization of the activation process remain one of the major challenges in the production of high-performance composites in energy storage applications. In this study, pyrolysis of durian and eggshells was performed for activated carbon production using sodium sulfite (Na₂SO₃) and orthophosphoric acid (H₃PO₄) as activating agents, then combined both together with a ratio of 1:1 to produce a hybrid activated carbon to increase the performance for energy storage applications. We concentrate on how different activating temperature stages affect their characteristics. Therefore, the optimum conditions for activation were obtained, which was at 700°C for the hybrid activated carbon. The investigation included examining the surface morphological characteristics, functional groups, and composition of the manufacturer’s activated carbon. Due to the increased carbon content, the porosity of the durian shell-derived activated carbon was better, as was the surface morphology, but the calcium carbonate present in the eggshell contributed to the structural stability of the surface functioning of the activated carbon. As a result, both materials will be appropriate precursors for activated carbon production in energy storage applications. The electrochemical evaluation demonstrates that biomass-derived activated carbons exhibit promising performance for energy storage applications. Durian shell carbon shows superior conductivity and EDLC behavior, while eggshell carbon contributes pseudo-capacitance despite higher resistance. The hybrid material achieves a balanced performance, combining both mechanisms, making it a sustainable and efficient electrode candidate for supercapacitors.

---

Keywords

---