Open Access

ARTICLE

Environmental Modulation of Flow, Mood States, and Brain Waves during Moderate-Intensity Cycling

Jonghwa Lee¹, Youngho Kim^2,*

1 Department of Sport Science, Seoul National University of Science and Technology, Seoul, Republic of Korea
2 Department of Health and Fitness, Seoul National University of Science and Technology, Seoul, Republic of Korea

* Corresponding Author: Youngho Kim. Email:

(This article belongs to the Special Issue: Improving Health-related Quality of Life (HRQoL) Through Promoting Health-Related Behaviors)

International Journal of Mental Health Promotion 2026, 28(8), 4 https://doi.org/10.32604/ijmhp.2026.081241

Received 26 February 2026; Accepted 15 April 2026; Issue published 31 August 2026

Abstract

Objectives: The present study aimed to investigate how environmental context modulates flow experience, mood states, and brain waves during moderate-intensity cycling. Methods: Fifty healthy adults were initially recruited; four participants withdrew during the study, resulting in a final sample of 46 participants. Flow experience was assessed using the Flow State Scale (FSS), mood states were measured using the Profile of Mood States (POMS), and cortical activity was recorded using a Quick-20 Dry EEG headset. Participants performed 300 s of moderate-intensity cycling under three environmental conditions: indoor, outdoor, and virtual reality (VR). Repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted, and Bonferroni-adjusted post hoc tests were applied. Results: Significant environmental differences were observed for Concentration on Task at Hand, Action–Awareness Merging, Loss of Self-Consciousness, Sense of Control, Autotelic Experience, and total FSS score (all p < 0.001), whereas Transformation of Time was not significant. Flow experience was significantly higher in the outdoor and VR conditions compared with the indoor condition. All POMS subscales (Tension–Anxiety, Depression–Dejection, Anger–Hostility, Vigor–Activity, Fatigue–Inertia, and Confusion–Bewilderment) and the Total Mood Disturbance Score (TMDS) differed significantly across environments (all p < 0.001), indicating more favorable mood states in outdoor and VR conditions relative to indoor cycling. For electroencephalographic (EEG) activity, significant environmental effects were found in theta, alpha, and gamma bands (p < 0.001), but not in beta activity. Theta power was greatest in the outdoor condition. Alpha power followed the order outdoor > indoor > VR. Gamma power was highest in the VR condition, followed by indoor and outdoor conditions. Conclusions: These findings indicate that exercise environment significantly influences psychological immersion, affective states, and neural activation during cycling. The results provide empirical evidence supporting the development of environment-based exercise guidelines and mental health–oriented training and rehabilitation programs.

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Keywords

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