Open Access

ARTICLE

Harvesting Wave Energy: An Economic and Technological Assessment of the Coastal Areas in Sarawak

Dexiecia Anak Francis¹, Jalal Tavalaei¹, Hadi Nabipour Afrouzi^2,*
1 Faculty of Engineering, Computing and Science, Swinburne University of Technology, Jalan Simpang Tiga, Kuching, 93350, Sarawak, Malaysia
2 College of Engineering, Faculty of Computing, Engineering and the Built Environment, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, B4 7XG, West Midlands, UK
* Corresponding Author: Hadi Nabipour Afrouzi. Email:
(This article belongs to the Special Issue: Artificial Intelligence-Driven Advanced Wave Energy Control Technology)

Energy Engineering https://doi.org/10.32604/ee.2025.070501

Received 17 July 2025; Accepted 09 October 2025; Published online 18 December 2025

Abstract

Wave energy is a promising form of marine renewable energy that offers a sustainable pathway for electricity generation in coastal regions. Despite Malaysia’s extensive coastline, the exploration of wave energy in Sarawak remains limited due to economic, technical, and environmental challenges that hinder its implementation. Compared to other renewable energy sources, wave energy is underutilized largely because of cost uncertainties and the lack of local performance data. This research aims to identify the most suitable coastal zone in Sarawak that achieves an optimal balance between energy potential, cost-effectiveness, and environmental impact, particularly in relation to infrastructure and regional development. The findings indicate that wave energy generation in Sarawak is technically feasible based on MOGA analysis. Among the studied sites, Bintulu emerged as the most balanced option, with a levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) of 0.778–0.864 USD/kWh and a CO₂ emission factor as low as 0.019–0.020 CO₂/kWh. Miri, while producing lower emissions than Sematan, recorded a higher LCOE of 1.045 USD/kWh with moderate emissions at 0.029 CO₂/kWh. Sematan, characterized by weaker wave conditions and higher installation penalties, resulted in the least favorable outcome, with an LCOE of 3.735 USD/kWh. Bintulu’s strategic location reduces CAPEX requirements, making it the most suitable site for large-scale wave energy deployment in Sarawak.

---

Keywords

Capital expenditure (CAPEX); operational expenditure (OPEX); levelized cost of electricity (LCOE); wave energy converter (WEC); Sarawak

---