Open Access

REVIEW

Thermo-Hydrodynamic Characteristics of Hybrid Nanofluids for Chip-Level Liquid Cooling in Data Centers: A Review of Numerical Investigations

Yifan Li¹, Congzhe Zhu¹, Zhihan Lyu^2,*, Bin Yang^1,3,*, Thomas Olofsson³

1 School of Energy and Safety Engineering, Tianjin Chengjian University, Tianjin, 300384, China
2 School of Computer Science and Technology, Xidian University, Xi'an, 710126, China
3 Department of Applied Physics and Electronics, Umeå University, Umeå, SE-901 87, Sweden

* Corresponding Authors: Zhihan Lyu. Email: ; Bin Yang. Email:

(This article belongs to the Special Issue: Advancements in Energy Efficiency and Thermal Management for Data Center)

Energy Engineering 2025, 122(9), 3525-3553. https://doi.org/10.32604/ee.2025.067902

Received 15 May 2025; Accepted 22 July 2025; Issue published 26 August 2025

Abstract

The growth of computing power in data centers (DCs) leads to an increase in energy consumption and noise pollution of air cooling systems. Chip-level cooling with high-efficiency coolant is one of the promising methods to address the cooling challenge for high-power devices in DCs. Hybrid nanofluid (HNF) has the advantages of high thermal conductivity and good rheological properties. This study summarizes the numerical investigations of HNFs in mini/micro heat sinks, including the numerical methods, hydrothermal characteristics, and enhanced heat transfer technologies. The innovations of this paper include: (1) the characteristics, applicable conditions, and scenarios of each theoretical method and numerical method are clarified; (2) the molecular dynamics (MD) simulation can reveal the synergy effect, micro motion, and agglomeration morphology of different nanoparticles. Machine learning (ML) presents a feasible method for parameter prediction, which provides the opportunity for the intelligent regulation of the thermal performance of HNFs; (3) the HNFs flow boiling and the synergy of passive and active technologies may further improve the overall efficiency of liquid cooling systems in DCs. This review provides valuable insights and references for exploring the multi-phase flow and heat transport mechanisms of HNFs, and promoting the practical application of HNFs in chip-level liquid cooling in DCs.

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