Nomophobia and psychological loneliness: Their relationship to sleep disorders among university students in Middle Eastern countries

Mohammad Farhan Al. Qudah¹, Ismael Salamah Albursan¹, Salaheldin Farah Attallah Bakhiet^2,*, Mohammed Awad Al-Tartouri³, Mohammed M. Ateik Al-Khadher¹, Abdo Hasan Al-Qadri⁴
1 Department of Psychology, College of Education, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11362, Saudi Arabia
2 Gifted Education Program, Department of Special Education, College of Education, Administrative and Technical Sciences, Arabian Gulf University, Building 293 Rd No. 2904, Manama, 329, Bahrain
3 Department of Self-Development Skills, Deanship of Common First Year, King Saud University, Riyadh, 11362, Saudi Arabia
4 School of Humanities and Education, Xi’an Eurasia University, Xi’an, 710065, China
* Corresponding Author: Salaheldin Farah Attallah Bakhiet. Email: email

Journal of Psychology in Africa https://doi.org/10.32604/jpa.2025.070220

Received 10 July 2025; Accepted 25 November 2025; Published online 04 January 2026

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Abstract

This study explored the level of nomophobia among university students in relation to psychological loneliness, sleep disorders, smartphone usage, age, and the duration of smartphone ownership. A sample of 2162 students from Middle Eastern countries: Jordan (n = 470), Saudi Arabia (n = 279), United Arab Emirates (n = 315), Egypt (n = 625), Oman (n = 237), and Sudan (n = 189) (female = 1706; 78.9%; mean age = 33.36, SD = 10.69). Data were collected using the Nomophobia Questionnaire (Yildirim et al., 2016), the UCLA Psychological Loneliness Scale (Russell, 1996), the Sleep Disorders Questionnaire, and a demographic questionnaire. Overall, the level of nomophobia was moderate (M = 64.12, SD = 16.9). In addition, Saudi students scored the highest (M = 3.35), while Sudanese students scored the lowest (M = 3.07). A stepwise multiple regression analysis indicated that sleep disorders were the strongest predictor of nomophobia, followed by daily smartphone usage and participants’ age. The findings further revealed significant cross-national and demographic variations, particularly higher levels of nomophobia among Saudi and married participants. Significant differences were also observed by type of work, those who work at the public-sector showed higher nomophobia scores compared to students. Gender differences were not significant, suggesting that smartphone dependence is similar for both males and females. The results confirmed that behavioral and sleep-related factors explain nomophobia more strongly than emotional loneliness. The Findings are consistent with Work–Life Balance Theory (Clark, 2000) concerning how blurred boundaries and functional motivations reinforce nomophobia behaviors. These findings suggest the need for targeted student counselling and guidance programs that address smartphone overuse, promote healthy sleep hygiene, and support students’ psychological well-being through preventive approaches.