Open Access

REVIEW

Reprogramming the Tumor Microenvironment in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Therapeutic Targets and Innovations

Bruno Špiljak^1,#, Bojan Poposki^2,#, Stjepanka Lešić^3,*

1 Department of Oral Medicine, University of Zagreb School of Dental Medicine, Zagreb, 10000, Croatia
2 Department of Oral and Periodontal Diseases, Faculty of Dentistry-Skopje, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Skopje, 1000, North Macedonia
3 Department of Dental Medicine, Faculty of Dental Medicine and Health Osijek, J. J. Strossmayer University of Osijek, Osijek, 31000, Croatia

* Corresponding Author: Stjepanka Lešić. Email:
# These authors contributed equally to this work

(This article belongs to the Special Issue: Head & Neck Cancer: Innovation in Diagnosis, Multidisciplinary Care and Treatment)

Oncology Research 2025, 33(11), 3269-3292. https://doi.org/10.32604/or.2025.068395

Received 28 May 2025; Accepted 20 August 2025; Issue published 22 October 2025

Abstract

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is an aggressive cancer with high recurrence rates and prevalent resistance to therapeutic interventions. Tumor behavior is largely dependent on the tumor microenvironment (TME) that includes immune cells, stromal components, cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), the extracellular matrix (ECM), and an associated cytokine network. In this review, we examine principal mechanisms of the tumorigenic transformation, encompassing immune checkpoint disruption, therapy resistance mediated through CAFs, the contribution of hypoxic niches, and several metabolic dependencies that hold potential as future targets. Novel therapeutics developed and/or repurposed, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), TME modulation therapeutics, CAF reprogramming, hypoxia targeting agents, and ECM remodeling, aim to overcome TME-mediated resistance. We also examine the rationale and progress of integrating TME-targeted therapies with other treatment modalities. By identifying actionable, molecular targets within the HNSCC TME, this review presents a translational perspective for implementing TME modulation in personalized treatment. The challenges comprise TME heterogeneity, a paucity of predictive biomarkers, and a translational gap between pre-clinical and clinical practice. Future studies must be aimed at proper stratification of patients, optimization of combination treatment, and cost-effectiveness analysis of TME-modifying therapies to enable personalized medicine in HNSCC treatment.

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Keywords

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