Characteristics and Behavior of Cement-Based Composites with Biomaterials

1  Introduction

Global construction remains heavily dependent on Portland cement and concrete, which consume substantial quantities of materials and fuels and emit significant amounts of carbon dioxide [1–3]. Historical and technical reviews indicate that cement technology has progressed through incremental improvements in clinker chemistry, process control, and admixture use, despite ongoing environmental pressure [4–6]. Comprehensive reviews of cement-based composites indicate that high-performance mixes, which combine mechanical capacity with extended service life, are still being developed [7–9].

Growing concerns about resource depletion and climate policy have encouraged interest in low-carbon binders, alternative aggregates, and bio-derived constituents that reduce embodied emissions in concrete [2,10,11]. Studies from the fields of cement chemistry and sustainability demonstrate that the introduction of new constituents must preserve the mechanical reliability and durability standards that codes and clients expect [3,6,12]. Reviews on biomaterials in construction describe feedstocks such as agricultural residues, lignocellulosic fibers, biochar, seashells, and microbial products, which shift research attention beyond conventional mineral admixtures [13,14]. Policy-oriented and technological surveys highlight how building sector regulations, climate targets, and bioeconomy strategies support a wider study of bio-based inputs for structural and non-structural elements [11,15,16]. Within this broader shift, biomaterial-modified cement-based composites form a distinct group of materials in which organic, bio-derived, or biologically mediated components interact with hydration products and the pore structure [17–19].

Existing research remains fragmented across material types, scale of testing, and performance indicators, which makes comparison and generalization difficult. Many studies concentrate on specific biomaterials, individual durability mechanisms, or isolated structural functions, while broader patterns across cement-based composites with biomaterials are rarely assembled in a single analysis. Information on the combined effects on fresh properties, mechanical behavior, transport characteristics, and environmental performance, together with mapping of publication trends, remains scattered across the literature. The present study addresses this gap through a review of the characteristics and behavior of cement-based composites with biomaterials. The review is structured around three guiding questions: (i) which biomaterial families have been investigated in cement-based composites and how they are integrated at binder, aggregate, fiber, and biologically mediated levels; (ii) what mechanisms most consistently explain reported changes in fresh properties, mechanical performance, and transport-related durability indicators; and (iii) which testing and monitoring approaches are used to quantify long-term performance in laboratory studies and in service conditions. To maintain a clearly defined objective, the review focuses on cement-based and blended-cement matrices and biomaterials used as additions, partial replacements, aggregates, fibers, or microbial/enzyme-based mineralization agents; other low-carbon binder families are discussed only when they are directly compared against cement-based systems in the cited literature. The primary objective is to establish a comprehensive understanding of how biomaterials impact the physical, mechanical, durability, and environmental performance of cement-based composites, while also identifying research directions that can inform the future development of sustainable construction materials.

2  Review Methodology

This study employed a structured literature review methodology to systematically identify, screen, and synthesize research on cement-based composites incorporating biomaterials. Firstly, a comprehensive keyword search was conducted using Scopus and Google Scholar. Search terms combined descriptors related to cement systems (e.g., cement-based, concrete, mortar, blended cement) with biomaterial-related terms (e.g., bio-based materials, agricultural waste, fibers, biochar, ash, and rubber). Reference lists of key publications were also examined to capture additional relevant studies.

Studies were included if they investigated cement-based or blended-cement matrices incorporating biomaterials as binders, aggregates, fibers, or biologically mediated agents, and reported outcomes related to fresh properties, mechanical behavior, transport performance, durability, testing methods, or environmental aspects. Studies focusing solely on non-cement binders, lacking performance-related data, or unrelated to construction materials were excluded. Only English-language publications were considered.

After removing duplicates, titles and abstracts were screened, followed by assessment. Finally, data were extracted on biomaterial type, integration method, mixture details, curing conditions, testing approaches, and reported effects, and then synthesized by biomaterial category and performance indicators.

3  Overview of Biomaterials

Biomaterials within cement-based composites form a wide group of plant-derived, microbially driven, and bio-related industrial constituents that are introduced into cementitious systems for mechanical, durability, hygrothermal, and environmental purposes [1,7,17]. Reviews focusing on biomaterials and construction demonstrate that bio-based inputs are now considered within a structured research area that connects materials science, structural engineering, and environmental assessment [11,18].

Plant and agricultural biomaterials represent one of the most visible families in this context, since they draw directly on renewable biological resources and agricultural residues. Hemp-based concretes and hemp–lime systems demonstrate how plant aggregates can be combined with mineral binders for envelope and wall applications, with a focus on moisture buffering, hysteretic behavior, and hygrothermal response [20–22]. Structural use of hemp fibers within concrete has been presented as an example of bio-based reinforcement for resilient and sustainable applications in building and infrastructure [23–25]. Wood fibers have been considered as additives in mortars, serving as a sustainable reinforcement option and extending the range of lignocellulosic materials used in cement-based composites [19,26,27]. Work on bamboo members and their strengthening technology further illustrates how plant-based materials are examined for structural functions in parallel with more traditional steel or synthetic fiber systems [19,25,27].

Agricultural residues and bio-derived ashes have been studied as cementitious components or supplementary materials that can partially replace conventional binders. Rice husk ash has been developed and assessed as a cement substitute for environmental conservation and green infrastructures, which places it within the broader family of biomass ashes used in construction [8,28,29]. A comprehensive study of building materials and bricks for residential construction reveals that bio-based materials are considered alongside conventional masonry units and binders, reinforcing their relevance in everyday building practice [2,10,12]. Reviews on magnesium phosphate cement and related binders highlight alternative cement systems that can interact with different types of aggregates and additives, including bio-derived components [6,7,30]. Microstructural studies on reinforcement mechanisms and nanoparticles suggest that fine bio-based powders, such as biochar, cellulose, or lignin, are considered in a context where control of pore structure, hydration products, and transport properties is central [31–33]. Reviews on biomaterials-based concrete composites that focus on biochar, cellulose, and lignin summarize this direction and connect it with carbon capture objectives and material performance in a general way [18,34].

Industrial by-products with a biological link form another important category within biomaterials used in cement-based composites. Oil palm clinker has been treated as a lightweight aggregate in structural concrete, with studies that consider flexural behavior, crack response, compressive strength, tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity in reinforced and plain concretes [25,35,36]. A review of palm oil and its by-products in bio-asphalt and bio-concrete mixtures shows how residues from the palm oil industry can be incorporated in both pavement and concrete materials [13,37,38]. Rubber/crete systems provide another example, as tire-derived rubber from end-of-life tires is studied for its mechanical properties and reuse within concrete [7,39]. Studies that involve biomaterials in conjunction with glass waste, or where cement and sand are partially replaced with biomaterial and glass waste, demonstrate combined recycling approaches that integrate bio-based and non-bio-based residues into a single composite [40,41]. Work on green flowable sand concrete with seashell-based cementitious material and granite industrial waste further extends this picture of bio-related and industrial by-products within cementitious matrices [8,29,42].

Microbial and bacteria-based biomaterials introduce biological activity more directly into cement-based systems. Reviews on biomaterials synthesized through microbial-induced calcium carbonate precipitation describe a group of techniques where microbial processes are utilized in construction-related applications [14,43,44]. A mini review of enzyme-induced calcite precipitation presents a related technique for eco-friendly biocement production, highlighting enzyme-based pathways for calcium carbonate formation in construction materials [14,45,46]. Studies on biogrouting consider the applicability of microbial processes in sandy ground and foundation conditions, which connect microbially induced cementation with geotechnical practice [43,47,48]. Reviews of advanced bacteria-based biomaterials for environmental applications indicate that similar systems can be applied in water treatment, environmental control, and construction-related contexts [44,49]. Work on factors that affect microbial metabolic processes of biomaterials used for leak repairs offers an example where biological agents are associated with local sealing and maintenance functions within civil engineering systems [2,6,46].

4  Integration of Biomaterials in Cement-Based Composites

The integration of biomaterials, Table 1, into cement-based composites has evolved within the broader context of sustainable and high-performance concrete, where mixture design, microstructure, and durability are studied in conjunction with environmental pressures on conventional clinker systems [1,7,10]. Reviews on the cement industry and sustainable construction highlight that bio-derived constituents are being considered alongside other alternative materials to reduce emissions while maintaining engineering performance in general [2,17,30].

Integration at the binder level commonly relies on partial replacement of Portland cement with bio-derived or bio-related powders. The development of rice husk ash as a cement substitute for environmental conservation demonstrates how biomass ash can be blended with cement for green infrastructure applications in a general manner [8,28,29]. Research progress on magnesium phosphate cement presents an alternative binder family that stands beside Portland-based systems in discussions of sustainable cements [6,7,30]. Studies on the microscopic reinforcement and nano-modification of cement-based materials explain how fine particles influence the hydrate structure and pore features, which form the basis for considering biochar, cellulose, and lignin as binder-related additions [31–33]. Reviews focused on biomaterials-based concrete composites summarize how biochar, cellulose, and lignin are introduced into cementitious systems with attention to mechanical and environmental aspects at a general level [18,34].

The fresh concrete behavior has encouraged further integration of biomaterials in self-compacting and internally cured mixes. Studies on self-compacting concrete with biomaterial-based cement substituents consider rheology, mechanical response, and microstructure when part of the binder is replaced with bio-derived materials [7,34,50]. Research on fly ash-based concrete prepared with bio-admixtures as internal curing agents examines the combinations of mineral additions and bio-derived admixtures in mixes where internal water supply is crucial [8,51,52]. Partial replacement of cement and sand with biomaterial and glass waste provides another route, in which bio-based and glass recyclates appear together in both paste and fine aggregate fractions [40,41]. Experimental work on self-curing concrete using biomaterials as admixtures places organic agents within the paste, where they influence internal moisture conditions during hydration in a general sense [9,51,53].

Aggregate-level integration covers bio-aggregates and bio-related industrial by-products. Studies on stone and several biomaterials as coarse aggregate discuss concrete where part of the natural aggregate is substituted with bio-related materials, which changes the aggregate skeleton and interface environment [6,10,29]. A work that combines seashells as a cementitious biomaterial with granite industrial waste as fine aggregate presents a mix design for green flowable sand concrete, which integrates bio-derived and industrial residues [8,29,42]. The bond behavior of a bio-aggregate embedded in a cement-based matrix is examined to understand how organic particles interact with the surrounding paste along the interface zone [24,25,31]. Oil palm clinker has been introduced as a lightweight aggregate in reinforced concrete beams and other elements, illustrating the use of an agricultural by-product in structural concrete [35–37].

Further aggregate-related systems involve rubber particles, palm oil by-products, and functional aggregates. Reviews on rubber/crete describe concrete with tire-derived rubber as a partial aggregate replacement, with attention to its mechanical behavior and the reuse of rubber scrap [7,39]. The work on palm oil and its by-products in bio-asphalt and bio-concrete mixtures discusses the integration of oil-industry residues into bituminous and cementitious matrices [13,37,38]. Studies on phosphorus removal from aqueous solutions using adsorptive concrete aggregates demonstrate that these aggregates provide both load-carrying and environmental functions in water treatment contexts [18,44].

Plant-based aggregates and fibers enter cement-based composites at several scales. Hemp concrete and hemp–lime systems involve hemp shiv combined with mineral binders for wall and envelope applications, with hygrothermal and moisture-related performance analyzed through experiments and modeling tools [20–22]. Hemp-fiber concrete for structural applications places hemp fibers within cementitious matrices as reinforcement in structural work [19,23,25]. Wood fibers used as additives in mortars are presented as a sustainable reinforcement option that broadens the range of lignocellulosic components in cement-based mixes [19,26]. Studies on the strengthening of bamboo flexural members examine the interaction between bamboo members and cementitious materials in structural systems [1,7,27]. Agricultural waste reinforcement in green composites and wider surveys of residential building materials indicate that such bio-based components are being considered alongside conventional bricks and concretes in residential contexts [12,13].

Microbial and bacteria-based biomaterials are integrated through biogenic mineralization and bio-cementation processes. Reviews on biomaterials synthesized through microbial-induced calcium carbonate precipitation describe systems where bacteria, nutrients, and calcium sources are arranged to form cemented products for construction-related uses in a general sense [14,43,44]. A mini-review on enzyme-induced calcite precipitation presents enzyme-based methods for eco-friendly biocement production that can be associated with soil or material stabilization [14,45]. Assessment of biogrouting in sandy ground discusses the applicability of these microbial processes for ground improvement tasks [6,43,47]. Studies on the factors that affect microbial metabolic processes of biomaterials used for leak repair show how microbial agents can be incorporated into repair systems for civil infrastructure [2,6,46]. Reviews of advanced bacteria-based biomaterials for environmental applications position these materials for use in various applications, including construction and environmental uses such as water-related treatments [44].

Self-healing and internal curing concretes form another major route for biomaterial integration. Reviews of encapsulation methods for biomaterials in self-healing concrete summarize different carrier systems for storing and releasing healing agents inside cementitious matrices [53–55]. Studies on biomaterial-assisted self-healing for high-performance centrifugal concrete piles focus on integrating biomaterials into structural piles, with a primary aim of reducing cracks [7,56]. A framework for biomaterial-assisted self-healing in lightweight concrete with porous aggregate micro-reservoirs shows how aggregates can act as hosts for healing agents in self-healing systems [24,29]. Work on predicting the optimal biomaterial dosage and curing duration for self-healing concrete utilizes designed experiments and decision tree algorithms to relate mix composition and curing conditions [34,51,57]. Internal curing with biomaterial-based admixtures is also observed in studies on fly ash-based concretes and self-curing concretes, where bio-derived admixtures are mixed into the paste as agents that influence internal moisture behavior [41,52,53].

Functional and environmental roles add further directions for integration. Numerical studies on building envelope performance with dynamic phase change material integration in biomaterial concrete walls describe composite walls in which phase change materials and biomaterial concretes work together to achieve thermal and energy-related objectives [21,22,58]. Life cycle studies of hybrid structures with advanced bio- and conventional materialization in dense urban contexts quantify emissions when bio-based materials form part of structural systems [2,11,15]. Reviews on biomaterials technology and policies in the building sector connect technical integration of biomaterials with policy frameworks and sectoral targets [11,17]. Discussions on natural building materials in architectural pedagogy and innovative façade strategies for the seismic design of tall buildings reveal that material choices, including bio-based composites, are closely linked to teaching, energy performance, and seismic behavior in design practice [1,16,59].

Finally, it is useful to position biomaterial-modified cement-based composites within the wider landscape of decarbonization strategies for cement and concrete. Conventional routes such as supplementary cementitious material replacement, optimized particle packing, and recycled aggregate incorporation often offer more mature standardization pathways, yet they still face durability constraints that depend on transport behavior and exposure class. Biomaterial-based routes can overlap with supplementary cementitious material strategies (e.g., bio-derived ashes) while also introducing distinct challenges such as moisture sensitivity of plant-based phases, biological activation requirements in microbial/enzyme-based systems, and higher variability in feedstock properties. For this reason, durability verification and monitoring become central differentiators: biomaterial systems frequently require stronger coupling between mechanical metrics and transport indicators, and, in some applications, in-situ monitoring (moisture and chloride exposure proxies) to demonstrate long-term reliability under real service conditions.

5  Physical and Mechanical Properties

Physical and mechanical properties, Table 2, serve as a central reference for evaluating the performance of cement-based composites with biomaterials, as they govern strength, stiffness, deformation capacity, and transport behavior, which in turn control service conditions in most applications [1,4,7]. Conventional cement systems and sustainable cementitious materials provide benchmarks for density, hydration products, and phase composition, which are used when bio-based constituents are introduced [3,5,10]. Reviews on biomaterials in concrete and sustainable construction indicate that experimental programs usually report compressive and flexural strength, modulus of elasticity, and permeability for bio-modified mixtures [11,17]. General work on high-performance composites and microscopic reinforcement concepts establishes a framework in which any biomaterial is discussed in relation to its microstructure, cracking patterns, and fracture response [1,8,31].

Background studies on nanoparticles, supplementary cementitious materials, and polymers clarify how changes in composition affect the mechanical and physical properties of cement-based materials [9,32,33]. Reviews on early-age properties and viscosity-modifying admixtures describe how fineness, rheology, and segregation resistance relate to cracking risk and dimensional stability in fresh and hardening concrete [33,50,51]. Work on transport in unsaturated materials and performance in aggressive aqueous environments enhances the description of durability-related behavior by incorporating permeability, diffusion, and sorption characteristics [6,23,60]. Modelling studies in cementitious materials and computational materials science support the interpretation of test data through microstructure-based descriptions of stiffness and transport [23,61].

Plant-based biomaterials influence both physical and mechanical properties through porosity, moisture affinity, and reinforcement action. Hemp concrete studies have presented hysteretic moisture buffering, sorption, and desorption cycles, as well as their associated effects on temperature and moisture fields in wall elements [20–22]. Numerical tools for hemp–lime envelopes and biomaterial concrete walls analyse hygrothermal behavior and relate density and moisture capacity to indoor conditions [15,22,58]. Studies on hemp-fiber concrete for structural applications consider mechanical resistance and deformation under loading, placing hemp within discussions on resilient bio-based reinforcement [1,7,23]. Work on wood fibers in mortars and the reinforcement of agricultural waste in green composites reports changes in tensile response and crack patterns when lignocellulosic fibers are added to the matrix [19,26]. Research on bamboo flexural members documents strengthening strategies and bending performance, giving examples of hybrid systems that combine plant-based components and cementitious materials [7,25,27].

Aggregate-related biomaterials alter the unit weight, porosity, and interface properties of hardened composites. Studies that use stone and several biomaterials as coarse aggregate report density, compressive strength, and workability for different replacement levels [10,12,29]. Green flowable sand concrete, incorporating seashell-based cementitious material and granite waste as fine aggregate, is evaluated in terms of compressive strength and durability indicators [8,29,42]. Oil palm clinker used as a lightweight aggregate in reinforced beams and other members is examined through flexural, cracking, and strength tests, which describe the behavior of palm-based lightweight concrete [35–37]. Reviews on palm oil by-products in bio-concrete mixtures link these mechanical observations with mixtures that include oils, ashes, or clinkers from the palm industry [13,37,38].

Recycled biomaterials and bio-related wastes used as aggregates bring questions about deformability, toughness, and long-term response. Rubber/crete reviews present compressive strength, modulus, and impact-related indicators for mixtures with tire-derived rubber aggregate [7,39]. Studies on concretes incorporating biomaterial and glass waste, along with partial replacement of cement and sand by these additions, have reported compressive and flexural strengths, density, and workability [40,41]. Research on adsorptive concrete aggregates for phosphorus removal examines the sorption capacity and mechanical performance of aggregates that serve both environmental and structural functions [18,44].

Binder-related biomaterials influence mechanical behavior through changes in hardened paste microstructure and hydration products. The development of rice husk ash as a cement substitute for environmental conservation involves assessing the compressive strength and performance of blended binders in green infrastructure [10,28,29]. Research on magnesium phosphate cement summarizes the strength development, stiffness, and setting characteristics of this alternative binder family [6,7,30]. Microscopic reinforcement and nanoparticle reviews describe the relationships between refined hydrates and mechanical response, which provide a context for biochar, cellulose, and lignin-based additions discussed in biomaterial concrete reviews [18,31–33]. Papers on self-compacting systems with biomaterial substituents report compressive strength, stiffness, and microstructural observations when part of the binder is replaced [8,34,52].

Rheological properties and early-age behavior form another part of the physical and mechanical description. Self-compacting concrete with biomaterial-based cement substituents is evaluated through slump flow, viscosity, segregation resistance, and compressive strength [7,34,50]. Fly ash-based concretes with bio-admixtures as internal curing agents are examined in terms of shrinkage, early-age cracking, and strength development as internal water is redistributed [51,52,60]. Self-curing concrete with biomaterials as admixtures and mixes with extracts of biomaterials for internal curing has been examined in terms of time-dependent deformation and residual tensile capacity in conjunction with internal moisture measurements [9,41,53]. These studies sit within broader work that relates fineness, hydration rate, and rheology to cracking risk in cement-based materials [3,33,51].

Across the reviewed studies, reported mechanical and physical outcomes are strongly conditioned by differences in experimental design and reporting quality. Many investigations remain limited to short curing ages, laboratory-scale specimens, and a narrow set of response variables, which restricts comparison across biomaterial families and makes it difficult to infer service-level performance. Divergence in findings is also frequently linked to incomplete disclosure of biomaterial pre-treatment (washing, calcination temperature for ashes, fiber surface modification, particle grading, and moisture conditioning), even though such steps directly control interfacial bonding, internal curing behavior, and pore-structure evolution. A further inconsistency arises because some studies emphasize strength metrics while omitting transport indicators that govern durability, whereas others report permeability-related measures without connecting them to the mechanical reliability requirements expected in design practice. These limitations indicate that stronger standardization of reporting (complete mix design, bio-feedstock provenance, pre-treatment steps, and consistent durability indicators reported alongside strength) is necessary before robust cross-study generalizations can be made for code-oriented adoption.

6  Durability and Performance

The durability and overall performance of cement-based composites, Table 3, with biomaterials are typically discussed in relation to their microstructure, transport properties, and long-term mechanical response under environmental and mechanical actions [1,4,7]. Classic work on sustainable cementitious materials, clinker chemistry, and challenges in the cement industry provides a reference for the behavior of hydration products, pore structures, and exposure resistance in conventional systems [2,3,5,10]. Studies on aggressive aqueous environments, unsaturated transport, and computational materials science describe how permeability, sorption, cracking, and pore connectivity control durability limits, and these same aspects frame the evaluation of bio-modified concretes [6,60–62]. Reviews on nanoparticles and supplementary cementitious materials relate pore refinement and matrix densification to durability indicators, which offer a technical baseline for newer bio-based additions [8,32,33].

Hygrothermal response and water transport are particularly important in composites that contain plant-based aggregates or porous bio-phases. Hemp concrete studies report hysteretic moisture buffering and transient hygrothermal behavior, which links pore structure and sorption capacity with humidity regulation in building envelopes [20,21,60]. Numerical tools for hemp–lime walls and biomaterial concrete envelopes simulate coupled heat and moisture transfer, and provide data on temperature and humidity profiles through the thickness over time [15,22,58]. Studies on adsorptive concrete aggregates demonstrate that modified aggregates can interact with aqueous contaminants while still meeting structural requirements, thereby linking environmental performance with long-term contact with water [18,44,49]. Reviews on nanoparticles and fine-scale modifiers again stress the relation between refined pores, reduced permeability, and improved resistance against harmful agents [8,32,33].

Durability in plant-based fiber and aggregate systems is often interpreted through bond behavior, moisture sensitivity, and structural performance under service actions. Structural hemp-fiber concrete is discussed as a resilient material where mechanical resistance and deformation capacity are evaluated under load, including considerations for long-term use [1,7,23]. Hemp–lime wall systems and related mixes have been studied in terms of moisture storage, temperature response, and potential effects on cracking or shrinkage during service [20–22]. Research on wood fibers in mortars and green composites with agricultural waste focuses on reinforcement efficiency, crack control, and overall performance under repeated or sustained actions [19,26]. Studies on the bond behavior of bio-aggregates embedded in cement-based matrices analyse interface conditions and stress transfer, which influence durability through crack initiation and propagation [24,31,61]. Research on bamboo flexural members focuses on strengthening techniques and serviceability limits in hybrid systems that combine bamboo and cementitious components [7,25,27].

The durability of composites that utilize bio-related coarse or fine aggregates is evaluated through mechanical tests, absorption measurements, and exposure conditions. Concrete with stone and several biomaterials as coarse aggregate is assessed for strength, density, and water uptake, which indicates the suitability of these aggregates in structural applications [10,12,29]. Green flowable sand concrete, containing seashell-based cementitious material and granite waste as fine aggregate, is studied for its mechanical and durability properties to characterize the performance of such hybrid mixtures [8,29,42]. The use of oil palm clinker in lightweight concrete and reinforced beams is examined in relation to flexural cracking, stiffness, and long-term response, with tests reported for compressive strength, tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity [35–37]. Reviews on palm oil and its by-products in bio-concrete and bio-asphalt mixtures discuss long-term behavior of these constituents in binders and aggregates [13,37,38]. Rubber/crete reviews examine mixtures with tire-derived rubber from the perspective of strength loss, improved deformability, impact response, and fatigue-type behavior over time [7,39].

Binder-level biomaterials and alternative chemistries influence durability through modifications of hydrates, pore systems, and chemical stability. The development of rice husk ash as a cement substitute in green infrastructure involves assessing the strength and durability performance of ash-blended binders, which informs the application ranges [10,28,29]. Research on magnesium phosphate cement summarizes its setting, strength development, and service behavior in different environments, placing this binder in discussions of repair and specialized applications [6,7,30]. Reviews of microscopic reinforcement and nanoparticles show how refined hydrates and dense microstructures can reduce permeability and change resistance to aggressive solutions [31–33]. Reviews on biochar, cellulose, and lignin in concrete composites present these materials as potential cement substituents or modifiers, and refer to their influence on mechanical and durability parameters in a broad sense [18,34].

Durability is also discussed in the context of self-compacting and internally cured biomaterial concretes. Self-compacting concrete produced with biomaterial-based cement substitutes is evaluated in terms of rheology, microstructure, mechanical behavior, and indicators related to durability, such as porosity and water absorption [7,34,50]. Fly ash-based concretes prepared with bio-admixtures as internal curing agents have been studied for their effects on shrinkage control, cracking, and strength evolution, which directly influence service performance [51,52,60]. Self-curing concrete with biomaterials as admixtures and concretes containing extracts of biomaterials for internal curing are examined in terms of moisture redistribution and time-dependent deformation under drying, which relate to durability through shrinkage and crack formation [9,41,53]. Bioconcrete with nano-silica is studied with an emphasis on its durability properties, connecting nano-scale modification with resistance to various degradation mechanisms [31,33,55].

Self-healing systems with biomaterials treat durability through crack management, sealing, and performance recovery. Reviews on encapsulation methods describe various methods for storing biomaterials within concrete, allowing them to be activated upon cracking, and summarize testing on healed specimens [53–55]. Studies on biomaterial-assisted self-healing for high-performance centrifugal concrete piles examine crack reduction and associated structural response under loading cycles [7,56]. Proposed frameworks for lightweight concrete with porous aggregate micro-reservoirs present aggregates as carriers of healing agents, where the porous phase participates in storing both water and agents [24,29]. Decision tree-based work on predicting the optimal biomaterial content and curing duration relates mix design and curing time to self-healing performance measures, such as strength recovery and crack closure [34,52,57].

Biocementation techniques, based on microbial or enzyme-induced calcium carbonate precipitation, address durability in soils and cemented layers formed through biological processes. Reviews on biomaterials synthesized via microbial-induced calcium carbonate precipitation describe the treated media in terms of stiffness and strength development, which are directly linked to performance under mechanical and hydraulic actions [14,43]. Mini reviews on enzyme-induced calcite precipitation report eco-friendly routes for biocement production and discuss general features of the stabilized material [2,14,45]. Assessment of biogrouting in sandy ground examines its applicability for ground improvement in terms of strength and deformation behavior [6,43,47]. Studies on microbial metabolic processes in biomaterials used for leak repairs have identified environmental and material factors that affect the sealing performance and stability of the repair in contact with water [6,44,46].

7  Future Trends and Research Directions

Future research on cement-based composites incorporating biomaterials is expected to remain at the intersection of materials science, environmental objectives, and structural performance, with continued pressure to reduce clinker content and align new systems with established reliability expectations in civil engineering. Previous studies indicate that work on biomaterials in concrete is expanding in volume and thematic diversity, while still requiring stronger connections between materials development, structural behavior, and environmental assessment. Within this context, multifunctional composites that combine structural capacity, moisture control, and environmental functions are emerging as a prominent direction, as shown in studies on hemp concretes, hemp–lime walls, biomaterial concrete walls with phase change materials, adsorptive aggregates, and biochar-based binders, where comfort, energy performance, and structural behavior are considered together.

Plant-based fibers and aggregates are likely to retain a central place, with growing emphasis on performance optimization and durability, as highlighted in work on natural fiber-reinforced composites, agricultural waste reinforcement, wood fibers in mortars, bamboo flexural members, and hemp-fiber concretes. Parallel to this, waste-based aggregates and binders incorporating glass, shells, rubber, and industrial by-products, such as oil palm clinker, align with circular economy goals. Future work is expected to refine mix design ranges, durability performance, and design guidance for these systems. Self-healing, internal curing, and time-dependent behavior form another strong research strand, with biomaterials playing a visible role in encapsulated systems, biomaterial-assisted self-healing in structural members, porous aggregate micro-reservoir concepts, decision tree-based optimization of dosage and curing, and internal curing mixes that address shrinkage and early-age cracking.

Microbial and enzyme-based biomaterials, particularly those associated with microbial-induced and enzyme-induced calcium carbonate precipitation, are expected to remain crucial for eco-friendly ground improvement and cemented systems, with research needs focusing on scale, uniformity, environmental conditions, and performance monitoring. Advanced modelling, multi-scale analysis, and performance prediction are expected to guide many of these developments, drawing on existing computational frameworks for cementitious materials and extending them to bio-modified mixtures, impact-loaded systems, and self-compacting concretes. At building and urban scales, future work is likely to link biomaterial composites with energy performance, comfort, life cycle assessment, and urban densification strategies, while policy frameworks, standardization, and education will continue to shape adoption through test methods, certification, clearer reporting of performance data, and teaching approaches that familiarize designers and engineers with biomaterials. Overall, future trends suggest the need for integrated efforts in multifunctional performance, circular resource utilization, biological processes, and advanced modeling, combined with closer collaboration between materials science, structural engineering, environmental analysis, architecture, and regulatory bodies.

A recurring implementation barrier across biomaterial categories is that promising laboratory performance does not automatically translate into scalable, code-aligned construction practice. Plant-based phases introduce higher variability in properties and moisture affinity, which can increase transport and durability risks if mixture water demand, interface quality, and curing are not carefully controlled. Bio-derived ashes and fine modifiers can deliver performance gains, but only when processing consistency, fineness, and dispersion are managed, because otherwise results become dosage-sensitive and difficult to reproduce. Microbial and enzyme-based routes face additional barriers related to uniformity of treatment, environmental dependence of activation, and the need for robust verification protocols to confirm crack sealing and permeability reduction under service actions. Across all categories, limited field datasets and inconsistent reporting of durability indicators remain major constraints; therefore, long-term monitoring and harmonized test protocols are critical requirements for practical adoption rather than optional additions.

8  Conclusion

This review aimed to discuss how biomaterials are incorporated into cement-based composites and how this incorporation affects their physical, mechanical, durability, and environmental performance. It mapped the main biomaterial categories, synthesized reported behaviors, and outlined implications for sustainable cement-based construction. The findings indicate that biomaterials enter cement-based systems through several principal routes, including bio-derived binders and additions, plant-based fibers and aggregates, microbial and enzyme-based treatments, and waste-derived components such as shells, glass, rubber, and agricultural residues. Across these families, the literature reveals a strong interest in reducing clinker content, reusing waste streams, and assigning additional functions such as internal curing, self-healing, or moisture regulation. Reported physical and mechanical behaviors show that bio-based additions frequently alter density, stiffness, and strength through changes in porosity and transport properties, with documented trade-offs between lower density or enhanced energy absorption and reduced compressive strength in some mixtures, as well as evidence of improved crack control and toughness in fiber- or nano-modified systems. Durability and service performance emerge as central themes, with extensive work on hygrothermal response, moisture buffering, sorption, chemical exposure, cracking, and long-term stiffness, alongside growing interest in self-healing systems based on encapsulated agents, microbial processes, and internal curing biomaterials. Environmental and life cycle assessments increasingly frame biomaterials in terms of embodied emissions, resource efficiency, and their roles in low-carbon envelopes and hybrid structures, underscoring the importance of linking mix design with whole-building performance. Future work should emphasize long-term field monitoring of biomaterial-based concretes in real structures, harmonized protocols for durability and mechanical testing, tighter integration of multi-scale modelling with life cycle assessment, and targeted case studies that connect material behavior with architectural and structural design decisions, so that biomaterial-modified cement-based composites can progress from experimental concepts to consistent, code-ready solutions in sustainable construction.

Acknowledgement: Not applicable.

Funding Statement: The authors received no specific funding for this study.

Author Contributions: The authors confirm their contribution to the paper as follows: study conception and design: Abdullah Alariyan, Anas Alaryan, Mahmoud Alhashash, Abdulhadi Alzabout, Mohammed Alariyan, Mohammed Abdulaal, Abdulrahman Ahmed, and Ahed Habib; analysis and interpretation of results: Abdullah Alariyan, Anas Alaryan, Mahmoud Alhashash, Abdulhadi Alzabout, Mohammed Alariyan, Mohammed Abdulaal, Abdulrahman Ahmed, and Ahed Habib; draft manuscript preparation: Abdullah Alariyan, Anas Alaryan, Mahmoud Alhashash, Abdulhadi Alzabout, and Mohammed Alariyan; manuscript review & editing: Mohammed Abdulaal, Abdulrahman Ahmed, and Ahed Habib. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Data Availability Statement: The data supporting this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Ethics Approval: Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

1. Li VC. High-performance and multifunctional cement-based composite material. Engineering. 2019;5(2):250–60. doi:10.1016/j.eng.2018.11.031. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

2. Rodrigues FA, Joekes I. Cement industry: sustainability, challenges and perspectives. Environ Chem Lett. 2011;9(2):151–66. doi:10.1007/s10311-010-0302-2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

3. Taylor HF. Cement chemistry. Vol. 2. London, UK: Thomas Telford; 1997. 459 p. [Google Scholar]

4. Gagg CR. Cement and concrete as an engineering material: an historic appraisal and case study analysis. Eng Fail Anal. 2014;40(5):114–40. doi:10.1016/j.engfailanal.2014.02.004. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

5. Ludwig HM, Zhang W. Research review of cement clinker chemistry. Cem Concr Res. 2015;78:24–37. doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.05.018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

6. Alexander M, Bertron A, De Belie N. Performance of cement-based materials in aggressive aqueous environments: state-of-the-art report, RILEM TC 211—PAE. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer; 2013. 462 p. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5413-3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

7. Wang D, Zhang W, Han B. New generation of cement-based composites for civil engineering. In: New materials in civil engineering. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier; 2020. p. 777–95. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818961-0.00025-9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

8. Fode TA, Chande Jande YA, Kivevele T. Effects of different supplementary cementitious materials on durability and mechanical properties of cement composite—Comprehensive review. Heliyon. 2023;9(7):e17924. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e17924. [Google Scholar] [PubMed] [CrossRef]

9. Chung DDL. Use of polymers for cement-based structural materials. J Mater Sci. 2004;39(9):2973–8. doi:10.1023/B:JMSC.0000025822.72755.70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

10. Li Z, Ding Z, Zhang Y. Development of sustainable cementitious materials. In: Proceedings of International Workshop on Sustainable Development and Concrete Technology; 2004 May 20–21; Beijing, China. 2004. p. 55–76. [Google Scholar]

11. Chen L, Zhang Y, Chen Z, Dong Y, Jiang Y, Hua J, et al. Biomaterials technology and policiesin the building sector: a review. Environ Chem Lett. 2024;22(2):715–50. doi:10.1007/s10311-023-01689-w. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

12. Jonnala SN, Gogoi D, Devi S, Kumar M, Kumar C. A comprehensive study of building materials and bricks for residential construction. Constr Build Mater. 2024;425:135931. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.135931. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

13. Ganesan V, Vinothan SS, Lakshmaiya N, Thangaraj M, Pandiarajan N. Nature-inspired bio-materials. In: Green manufacturing. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press; 2025. p. 121–57. doi:10.1201/9781003470342-6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

14. Goyal S. A comprehensive review of biomaterials synthesized using the MICP process for sustainable construction. Int J Inven Eng Sci. 2024;11(11):7–12. doi:10.35940/ijies.b9393.11111124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

15. Migoni Alejandre E, Koskamp G, van de Leur M, Wandl A, van Timmeren A. Quantifying the life cycle emissions of hybrid structures with advanced bio- and conventional materialization for low-embodied carbon urban densification of the Amsterdam Metropolitan Area. J Clean Prod. 2024;483:144273. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.144273. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

16. Ben-Alon L. Natural building materials in architecture pedagogy. In: Pedagogical experiments in architecture for a changing climate. London, UK: Routledge; 2023. p. 145–55. doi:10.4324/9781003351498-13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

17. Khitab A, Anwar W, Mehmood I, Khan UA, Saleem Kazmi SM, Munir MJ. Sustainable construction with advanced biomaterials: an overview. Sci Int. 2016;28(3):2351–6. [Google Scholar]

18. Patel R, Babaei-Ghazvini A, Dunlop MJ, Acharya B. Biomaterials-based concrete composites: a review on biochar, cellulose and lignin. Carbon Capture Sci Technol. 2024;12:100232. doi:10.1016/j.ccst.2024.100232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

19. Camargo MM, Adefrs Taye E, Roether JA, Tilahun Redda D, Boccaccini AR. A review on natural fiber-reinforced geopolymer and cement-based composites. Materials. 2020;13(20):4603. doi:10.3390/ma13204603. [Google Scholar] [PubMed] [CrossRef]

20. Aït Oumeziane Y, Bart M, Moissette S, Lanos C. Hysteretic behaviour and moisture buffering of hemp concrete. Transp Porous Medium. 2014;103(3):515–33. doi:10.1007/s11242-014-0314-7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

21. Aït Oumeziane Y, Moissette S, Bart M, Collet F, Pretot S, Lanos C. Influence of hysteresis on the transient hygrothermal response of a hemp concrete wall. J Build Perform Simul. 2017;10(3):256–71. doi:10.1080/19401493.2016.1216166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

22. Moissette S, Bart M, Aït Oumeziane Y, Lanos C, Collet F, Prétot S. Numerical tool for the evaluation of the hygrothermal performance of a hemp-lime concrete. In: Proceedings of the 4th Congrès International de Géotechnique—Ouvrages-Structures. Singapore: Springer; 2018. p. 533–43. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-6713-6_52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

23. Di Sarno L, Albuhairi D, Medeiros JMP. Exploring innovative resilient and sustainable bio-materials for structural applications: hemp-fibre concrete. Structures. 2024;68:107096. doi:10.1016/j.istruc.2024.107096. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

24. Ferreira SR, de Andrade RGM, de Andrade GM, de Araújo OMO, Lopes RT, de Moraes Rego Fairbairn E, et al. Bond behavior of a bio-aggregate embedded in cement-based matrix. Materials. 2022;15(17):6151. doi:10.3390/ma15176151. [Google Scholar] [PubMed] [CrossRef]

25. Altun F, Aktaş B. Investigation of reinforced concrete beams behavior of steel fiber added lightweight concrete. Constr Build Mater. 2013;38(7):575–81. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.09.022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

26. Stefanidou M, Kampragkou P, Kamperidou V. Wood fibres as additives in mortars: a sustainable reinforcement. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci. 2023;1196(1):012067. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1196/1/012067. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

27. Wei Y, Wang ZY, Chen S, Zhao K, Ding MM. Research progress of strengthening technology for bamboo flexural members. J For Eng. 2021;6(3):9–17. (In Chinese). doi:10.13360/j.issn.2096-1359.202004023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

28. Suzuki T, Shimamoto Y. Development of rice husk ash as a cement substitute for environmental conservation and its effective use in green infrastructures. In: Bio-based building materials. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature; 2023. p. 771–81. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-33465-8_59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

29. Mahzuz HMA, Ahmed M, Dhar MM. Use of stone and several biomaterials as course aggregate in concrete. Asian J Eng Sci Technol. 2013;3(1):42. [Google Scholar]

30. Haque MA, Chen B. Research progresses on magnesium phosphate cement: a review. Constr Build Mater. 2019;211:885–98. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.03.304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

31. Cao M, Zhang C, Wei J. Microscopic reinforcement for cement based composite materials. Constr Build Mater. 2013;40:14–25. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.10.012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

32. Kawashima S, Hou P, Corr DJ, Shah SP. Modification of cement-based materials with nanoparticles. Cem Concr Compos. 2013;36(7):8–15. doi:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2012.06.012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

33. Mendes TM, Hotza D, Repette WL. Nanoparticles in cement based materials: a review. Rev Adv Mater Sci. 2015;40(1):89–96. [Google Scholar]

34. Ujwal MS, Shiva Kumar G, Pramod SH, Sridhar HN, Pandit P. Toward sustainable self-compacting concrete: rheological, mechanical, durability, and microstructural evaluation of biomaterial-based cement substituents. Results Eng. 2025;27:106504. doi:10.1016/j.rineng.2025.106504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

35. Kamaruddin R, Al Bakri Abdullah MM, Mohd Tahir MF. Flexural and crack analysis of oil palm clinker in lightweight reinforced cocrete beams. Key Eng Mater. 2016;673:65–74. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.673.65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

36. Kamaruddin R, Al Bakri Abdullah MM, Mohd Tahir MF, Ekaputri JJ. Oil palm clinker potentility for producing lightweight concrete: compressive strength, tensile and modulus of elasticity analysis. Mater Sci Forum. 2016;841:200–9. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.841.200. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

37. Al-Sabaeei AM, Al-Fakih A, Noura S, Yaghoubi E, Alaloul W, Al-Mansob RA, et al. Utilization of palm oil and its by-products in bio-asphalt and bio-concrete mixtures: a review. Constr Build Mater. 2022;337:127552. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.127552. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

38. Riccardi C. Performance of asphalt mixtures with partial replacement of fossil binders by bio-based binders. In: Advances in bio-based materials for construction and energy efficiency. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier; 2025. p. 17–48. doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-32800-8.00009-3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

39. Valente M, Sibai A. Rubber/crete: mechanical properties of scrap to reuse tire-derived rubber in concrete; A review. J Appl Biomater Funct Mater. 2019;17(1S):1–8. doi:10.1177/2280800019835486. [Google Scholar] [PubMed] [CrossRef]

40. Thakur AS, Gautam CP. Partial replacement of cement and sand with biomaterial and glass waste in concrete. Waknaghat, India: Jaypee University of Information Technology; 2018. [Google Scholar]

41. Dhole A, Shende T. Extract of biomaterial as admixture for internal curing agent for concrete. J Nano Electron Phys. 2023;15(4):4026. doi:10.21272/jnep.15(4).04026. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

42. Hadjadj M, Guendouz M, Boukhelkhal D. The effect of using seashells as cementitious bio-material and granite industrial waste as fine aggregate on mechanical and durability properties of green flowable sand concrete. J Build Eng. 2024;87:108968. doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2024.108968. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

43. de Oliveira D, Horn EJ, Randall DG. Copper mine tailings valorization using microbial induced calcium carbonate precipitation. J Environ Manag. 2021;298:113440. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113440. [Google Scholar] [PubMed] [CrossRef]

44. Son Y, Yang J, Kim W, Park W. Advanced bacteria-based biomaterials for environmental applications. Bioresour Technol. 2024;414:131646. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2024.131646. [Google Scholar] [PubMed] [CrossRef]

45. Kidanemariam TG, Gebru KA, Kidane Gebretinsae H. A mini review of enzyme-induced calcite precipitation (EICP) technique for eco-friendly bio-cement production. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2024;31(11):16206–15. doi:10.1007/s11356-023-31555-9. [Google Scholar] [PubMed] [CrossRef]

46. Ujike I, Kubo F, Kawaai K, Okazaki S. Influencing factors affecting microbial metabolic processes of bio materials used for leakage repairs. In: Concrete solutions 2014. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press; 2014. p. 127–33. doi:10.1201/b17394-21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

47. Boruah RP, Mohanadhas B, Jayakesh K. Microbially induced calcite precipitation for soil stabilization: a state-of-art review. Geomicrobiol J. 2025;42(10):1122–37. doi:10.1080/01490451.2025.2545389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

48. Wu J, Liu L, Deng Y, Zhang G, Zhou A, Wang Q. Distinguishing the effects of cementation versus density on the mechanical behavior of cement-based stabilized clays. Constr Build Mater. 2021;271:121571. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121571. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

49. Wu F, Yu Q, Gauvin F, Brouwers HJH, Liu C. Phosphorus removal from aqueous solutions by adsorptive concrete aggregates. J Clean Prod. 2021;278:123933. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.123933. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

50. Khayat KH. Viscosity-enhancing admixtures for cement-based materials—An overview. Cem Concr Compos. 1998;20(2–3):171–88. doi:10.1016/S0958-9465(98)80006-1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

51. Bentz DP, Sant G, Weiss J. Early-age properties of cement-based materials. I: influence of cement fineness. J Mater Civ Eng. 2008;20(7):502–8. doi:10.1061/(asce)0899-1561(2008)20:7(502). [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

52. Malathy R, Chung IM, Prabakaran M. Characteristics of fly ash based concrete prepared with bio admixtures as internal curing agents. Constr Build Mater. 2020;262(1):120596. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120596. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

53. Vidhya KRM, Gobhiga S, Rubini K. Experimental study on self curing concrete using biomaterials as admixtures. Int J Eng Res Mod Educ. 2017;7:61–2. [Google Scholar]

54. Adresi M, Khoshoo M. Various methods of encapsulation biomaterials in self-healing concrete: a review. Eng Rep. 2025;7(9):e70276. doi:10.1002/eng2.70276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

55. Arunya A, Krishnamoorthy S, Ramachandra Murthy A, Iyer NR. Enhancement of durability properties of bioconcrete incorporated with nano silica. Int J Civ Eng Technol. 2017;8(8):1388–94. [Google Scholar]

56. Adibinia A, Khalili HD, Mohebbi MM, Momeni M, Moradi P, Ghouhestani S, et al. Biomaterial-assisted self-healing for crack reduction in high-performance centrifugal concrete piles. Buildings. 2025;15(7):1064. doi:10.3390/buildings15071064. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

57. Padmanaban M, Dhanapal J. Prediction of optimal biomaterial and curing duration for self-healing concrete through designed experiments and decision tree algorithm. Matéria. 2024;29(2):e20240002. doi:10.1590/1517-7076-rmat-2024-0002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

58. Li W, Rahim M, Wang B, El Ganaoui M, Bennacer R. Enhancing building envelope performance via dynamic PCM Integration in biomaterial concrete walls: a numerical evaluation and multi-objective optimization study. Build Environ. 2025;280:113141. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2025.113141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

59. Habib MM, Habib A, Younus SJ, Youns AM, Houri AL, Eissa A, et al. A review of innovative architectural façade strategies for seismic design of tall buildings. J Rehabil Civ Eng. 2025;13(2):18–46. doi:10.1049/pbbe003e_ch11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

60. Zhang Y, Zhang M. Transport properties in unsaturated cement-based materials—A review. Constr Build Mater. 2014;72:367–79. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.09.037. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

61. Garboczi EJ. Computational materials science of cement-based materials. Mater Struct. 1993;26(4):191–5. doi:10.1007/BF02472611. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]

62. Dolado JS, van Breugel K. Recent advances in modeling for cementitious materials. Cem Concr Res. 2011;41(7):711–26. doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.03.014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]