Open Access

REVIEW

Propolis as a potential modulator of aryl hydrocarbon receptor signaling in inflammation

Natália Alvarenga Borges¹, Larissa Manhães¹, Ludmilla Dias de Santana e Santana¹, Jessyca Sousa de Brito², Larissa Fonseca³, Ludmila F. M. F. Cardozo⁴, Denise Mafra^2,3,4,*,#,*

1 Graduate Program in Food, Nutrition and Health—Institute of Nutrition, State University of Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
2 Graduate Program in Biological Sciences—Physiology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
3 Graduate Program in Medical Sciences, Fluminense Federal University (UFF), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
4 Graduate Program in Nutrition Sciences, Fluminense Federal University (UFF), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

* Corresponding Author: Denise Mafra. Email:
Current Address: Hospital Universitário Antônio Pedro, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Rua Marquês do Paraná n° 303, 4° Andar, Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

European Cytokine Network 2026, 37(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.32604/ecn.2026.0ECN78096

Received 24 December 2025; Accepted 24 February 2026; Issue published 13 April 2026

Abstract

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that exhibits antagonistic pleiotropy, mediating both protective and detrimental cellular effects depending on the ligand and context. AhR can be activated by a variety of endogenous and exogenous stimuli, including environmental pollutants, UVB radiation, heme, arachidonic acid metabolites, gut microbiota–derived compounds, and xenobiotics. Upon activation, AhR translocates to the nucleus, where it dimerizes with the aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator (ARNT) and binds to xenobiotic response elements, inducing the expression of genes involved in xenobiotic metabolism, oxidative stress responses, and inflammatory signaling. In addition to these classical pathways, AhR also modulates immune function by regulating cytokine networks, including IL-17, IL-22, and IL-10, which play key roles in barrier integrity and immune homeostasis. Bioactive dietary compounds, particularly polyphenols such as flavonoids, have emerged as potential modulators of AhR signaling. Propolis, a complex bee-derived product rich in flavonoids and other phenolic compounds, has demonstrated antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects across multiple experimental models. However, the specific mechanisms through which propolis interacts with AhR signaling remain poorly understood. This mini-review summarizes current evidence on the potential role of propolis as an AhR modulator, discusses its implications for immune regulation, barrier function, and inflammation control, and highlights areas for future research.

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