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REVIEW

Male Breast Cancer: Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Molecular Mechanisms, Therapeutics, and Future Prospective

Ashok Kumar Sah^1,*, Ranjay Kumar Choudhary^1,2, Velilyaeva Alie Sabrievna³, Karomatov Inomdzhon Dzhuraevich⁴, Anass M. Abbas⁵, Manar G. Shalabi⁵, Nadeem Ahmad Siddique⁶, Raji Rubayyi Alshammari⁷, Navjyot Trivedi⁸, Rabab H. Elshaikh¹

1 Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied & Health Sciences, A Sharqiyah University, Ibra, 400, Oman
2 School of Allied Health Sciences, Sanskaram University, Jhajjar, 124108, Haryana, India
3 Department of Psychiatry, Medical Psychology and Narcology, Samarkand State Medical University, Samarqand, 140100, Republic of Uzbekistan
4 Department of Folk Medicine and Professional Diseases, Bukhara State Medical Institute, Bukhara, 200118, Republic of Uzbekistan
5 Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Jouf University, Sakaka, 72388, Saudi Arabia
6 Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Hafar Al Batin, Hafar Al Batin, 31991, Saudi Arabia
7 Department of Pharmacy Practice, University of Hafar Al Batin, Hafar Al Batin, 31991, Saudi Arabia
8 Department of Physiotherapy, University Institute of Allied Health Sciences, Chandigarh University, Mohali, 140413, Punjab, India

* Corresponding Author: Ashok Kumar Sah. Email:

(This article belongs to the Special Issue: Advances in Pathology, Early Diagnosis and Therapeutic Strategies for Breast Cancer)

Oncology Research 2026, 34(1), . https://doi.org/10.32604/or.2025.068238

Received 23 May 2025; Accepted 17 October 2025; Issue published 30 December 2025

Abstract

Male breast cancer (MBC) is rare, representing 0.5%–1% of all breast cancers, but its incidence is increasing due to improved diagnostics and awareness. MBC typically presents in older men, is human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-negative and estrogen receptor (ER)-positive, and lacks routine screening, leading to delayed diagnosis and advanced disease. Major risk factors include hormonal imbalance, radiation exposure, obesity, alcohol use, and Breast Cancer Gene 1 and 2 (BRCA1/2) mutations. Clinically, it may resemble gynecomastia but usually appears as a unilateral, painless mass or nipple discharge. Advances in imaging and liquid biopsy have enhanced early detection. Molecular mechanisms involve hormonal signaling, HER2/epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) pathways, tumor suppressor gene alterations, and epigenetic changes. While standard treatments mirror those for female breast cancer, emerging options such as cyclin-dependent kinase 4 and 6 (CDK4/6), and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors, immunotherapy, and precision medicine are reshaping management. Incorporating artificial intelligence, molecular profiling, and male-specific clinical trials is essential to improve outcomes and bridge current diagnostic and therapeutic gaps.

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