Open Access

REVIEW

Metabolic Adaptations of Cyanobacteria to Environmental Stress: Mechanisms and Biotechnological Potentials

Riya Tripathi, Varsha K. Singh, Palak Rana, Sapana Jha, Ashish P. Singh, Payel Rana, Rajeshwar P. Sinha^*

Laboratory of Photobiology and Molecular Microbiology, Department of Botany, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India

* Corresponding Author: Rajeshwar P. Sinha. Email:

(This article belongs to the Special Issue: Metabolic Mechanisms of Plant Responses to Stress)

Phyton-International Journal of Experimental Botany 2025, 94(11), 3371-3399. https://doi.org/10.32604/phyton.2025.070712

Received 22 July 2025; Accepted 09 October 2025; Issue published 01 December 2025

Abstract

Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic prokaryotes. They exhibit remarkable metabolic adaptability, enabling them to withstand oxidative stress, high salinity, temperature extremes, and UV radiation (UVR). Their adaptive strategies involve complex regulatory networks that affect gene expression, enzyme activity, and metabolite fluxes to maintain cellular homeostasis. Key stress response systems include the production of antioxidants such as peroxidases (POD), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD), which detoxify reactive oxygen species (ROS). To withstand environmental stresses, cyanobacteria maintain osmotic balance by accumulating compatible solutes, such as glycine betaine, sucrose, and trehalose. They also adapt to temperature and light fluctuations by modifying membrane properties and regulating photosynthetic activity. Furthermore, secondary metabolites such as mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) and scytonemin act as natural UV protectors. This study highlights current advances in understanding these stress tolerance mechanisms, including exopolysaccharide (EPS) formation, compatible solute accumulation, and ROS detoxification. Recent advancements in proteomics and synthetic biology have shed light on novel defense mechanisms, identifying stress-induced proteins and regulatory networks that enhance resilience. This review thoroughly explores the underlying molecular and biochemical mechanisms of cyanobacterial stress tolerance, which make them promising candidates for various biotechnological applications. Future research on cyanobacterial stress adaptation should bring together synthetic biology, omics tools, and environmental biotechnology. Using these approaches together could help create stress-tolerant cyanobacteria with improved use in farming, pollution control, and biofuel production, supporting solutions to global environmental and energy challenges.

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