An Xiong^1,2,#, Yi Tian^3,#, Xin Liang⁴, Shaoqun Liu^1,2, Chencheng Shi^1,2, Yiou Cao^1,2,*, Chang Su^1,2,*

European Cytokine Network, Vol.37, No.2, pp. 137-149, 2026, DOI:10.32604/ecn.2026.084018 - 30 June 2026

Abstract Backgrounds: Disruption of immune barrier function is considered a hallmark feature of inflammatory bowel disease. In the present study, the potential effects of the methyltransferase inhibitor procaine hydrochloride on intestinal barrier integrity, as well as T cell differentiation in the context of inflammatory bowel disease were explored. Methods: Using an experimental model of dextran sulfate sodium-induced ulcerative colitis, mice received daily treatment with either sulfasalazine (100 mg/kg) or procaine hydrochloride (45 mg/kg), or saline (10 μL/g) as a negative control, for 7 consecutive days. Subsequent analysis included disease activity index score, histopathology, expression levels of intestinal… More >

Matteo Ferraresi¹, Giulia Pezzi¹, Silvia Beltrami¹, Giorgia Cianci¹, Gloria Maini¹, Alessia Liboni², Marcello Baroni³, Daria Bortolotti^1,*, Giovanna Schiuma^1,*, Sabrina Rizzo^1,#, Giovanni Strazzabosco^1,#

European Cytokine Network, Vol.37, No.2, pp. 41-53, 2026, DOI:10.32604/ecn.2026.083049 - 30 June 2026

Abstract Flaviviruses, including Dengue, West Nile, Zika, and Japanese encephalitis viruses, are arthropod-borne RNA viruses that pose an increasing global health threat. This review summarizes the role of nonstructural protein 1 (NS1), a multifunctional glycoprotein found in intracellular and secreted forms, as a key regulator of innate immunity. NS1 modulates several pattern recognition receptor pathways, including TLRs, RLRs, SR-B1-related mechanisms, and inflammasome platforms, thereby altering cytokine and interferon responses. Its effects are virus- and context-dependent. WNV NS1 inhibits TLR3/TRIF signaling, reducing IRF3 activation, type I interferon production, and interferon-stimulated gene expression. In contrast, DENV NS1 is More >

Yuyue Luo^1,#, Yikan Zheng^2,#, Jie Qin^1,#, Jinwei Liu², Yuhan Ma², Jingda Li³, Jun Li⁴, Wenlong Sun^1,*, Qian Zhang^2,*, Mengyao Li^5,6,*

European Cytokine Network, Vol.37, No.2, pp. 97-119, 2026, DOI:10.32604/ecn.2026.082885 - 30 June 2026

Abstract Cytokines, as key signaling molecules, are involved in the regulation of physiological and pathological processes such as inflammation, immunity, and cell growth. Epigenetic mechanisms, including DNA methylation, histone modifications, chromatin remodeling, and non-coding RNAs, enable precise control of gene expression without changing the DNA sequence. Recent studies have revealed that cytokines interact with epigenetic regulation to form a dynamic and complex “cytokine-epigenetic axis”. Through metabolic reprogramming and regulation of epigenetic enzyme activity, this axis affects gene expression patterns at both transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels, thereby contributing to the initiation and progression of various diseases, including… More >

Fiorella Carnevali^1,*, Maria Chiara Muollo², Lucia Biagini², Giacomo Rossi²

European Cytokine Network, Vol.37, No.2, pp. 55-77, 2026, DOI:10.32604/ecn.2026.082188 - 30 June 2026

Abstract Severe immune-mediated complications following viral infections and vaccinations, including COVID-19 and anti–SARS-CoV-2 immunization, display remarkable clinical overlap despite occurring in distinct biological contexts. In a previous hypothesis-driven work, we proposed that metabolic incorporation of the non-human sialic acid N-glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc) into human glycoconjugates—defined as xenosialylation—may contribute to post-infectious and post-vaccination immune dysregulation. We further suggest that this phenomenon may represent a form of “immunological chimerism”, in which host glycoconjugates incorporate non-self molecular structures that predispose the immune system to varying degrees of immune imbalance. In its most severe manifestation, this process may culminate in… More > Graphic Abstract

Hsing-Ju Wu^1,2, Yu-Chieh Tsai^3,*, Hung-Yu Lin^2,4,*

European Cytokine Network, Vol.37, No.2, pp. 121-135, 2026, DOI:10.32604/ecn.2026.079012 - 30 June 2026

Abstract Backgrounds: Lymph node metastasis is a critical determinant of breast cancer prognosis, yet the specific microenvironmental cytokines driving this process remain elusive. This study aims to identify key prognostic cytokines linking nodal metastasis to tumor microenvironment (TME) remodeling and to evaluate their clinical utility. Methods: A predefined panel of 176 microenvironmental genes was evaluated using differential expression analysis and the Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator (LASSO) algorithm on the TCGA-BRCA cohort to identify optimal predictors of nodal metastasis. Prognostic value was assessed via Kaplan-Meier, subgroup, and multivariate Cox regression analyses, and validated across five… More > Graphic Abstract

Kavee Shree Sukumaran, Nelli Giribabu^*, Naguib Salleh^*

European Cytokine Network, Vol.37, No.2, pp. 79-95, 2026, DOI:10.32604/ecn.2026.078477 - 30 June 2026

Abstract Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is one of the most prevalent mucosal infections worldwide, experienced by women throughout their reproductive years. Candida albicans is involved in 85–95% of all VVC cases and given the stronger correlation between the severity of epithelial cytokine responses, rather than fungal burden, with VVC symptoms, this disease is fundamentally immunopathological. VVC is believed to be initiated by a cascade of events that leads to vaginal epithelial cell (VEC) damage. These cells act as immune sentinels and can detect fungal morphotypes as well as virulence factors through diverse pattern recognition receptors, such as TLRs,… More >

Kamaljeet¹, Abhishek Vijukumar¹, Hardik Kumar^2,*, Shilpa Debnath², Sourabh Kosey¹

European Cytokine Network, Vol.37, No.1, pp. 13-24, 2026, DOI:10.32604/ecn.2026.078458 - 13 April 2026

Abstract Cytokine storm syndromes have become a much-invoked concept to describe severe immunopathology in infectious, inflammatory, and iatrogenic diseases, but the concept is poorly defined and often mechanistically imprecise. High levels of systemic cytokines have often been viewed as indicators of immune dysfunction, and based on this notion, therapeutic interventions focused on general cytokine inhibition are proposed. Nevertheless, a growing number of clinical and experimental data dispute the notion that hypercytokinemia is necessarily pathological. The present paper reconsiders cytokine storm syndromes in the light of an evolutionary, systems-immunology model, and suggests that most cytokine amplification conditions… More >

Natália Alvarenga Borges¹, Larissa Manhães¹, Ludmilla Dias de Santana e Santana¹, Jessyca Sousa de Brito², Larissa Fonseca³, Ludmila F. M. F. Cardozo⁴, Denise Mafra^2,3,4,*,#,*

European Cytokine Network, Vol.37, No.1, pp. 1-11, 2026, DOI:10.32604/ecn.2026.0ECN78096 - 13 April 2026

Abstract The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that exhibits antagonistic pleiotropy, mediating both protective and detrimental cellular effects depending on the ligand and context. AhR can be activated by a variety of endogenous and exogenous stimuli, including environmental pollutants, UVB radiation, heme, arachidonic acid metabolites, gut microbiota–derived compounds, and xenobiotics. Upon activation, AhR translocates to the nucleus, where it dimerizes with the aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator (ARNT) and binds to xenobiotic response elements, inducing the expression of genes involved in xenobiotic metabolism, oxidative stress responses, and inflammatory signaling. In addition to… More >

Jiawen Chen^1,#, Zelin Liu^1,#, Keke Huang¹, Jinlan Li¹, Yajie Zhang¹, Dandan Chen¹, Yanjie Ruan², Ying Pan¹, Furun An¹, Yang Wan^1,*, Jiyu Wang^1,3,*, Qianshan Tao^1,*

European Cytokine Network, Vol.37, No.1, pp. 25-39, 2026, DOI:10.32604/ecn.2026.077875 - 13 April 2026

Abstract Objectives: B-cell lymphoma exhibits significant clinical heterogeneity, necessitating improved biomarkers for risk stratification. C-C chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7) and trimethylation of histone H3 lysine 9 (H3K9me3) are implicated in cellular senescence and tumor invasion. While the clinical significance of their co-expression in lymphomagenesis remains unclear. This study aims to define the expression profiles of CCR7 and H3K9me3 in B-cell lymphoma, explore their correlation with aggressive clinical indicators, and evaluate their combined prognostic value. Methods: The expression of CCR7 and H3K9me3 in tumor tissues from B-cell lymphoma patients was analyzed by immunohistochemical (IHC) double-staining. The mechanistic… More >

Sri Lestari Utami^1,2, Mohammad Hidayat³, Diana Lyrawati⁴, Loeki Enggar Fitri^5,*

European Cytokine Network, Vol.36, No.4, pp. 74-83, 2025, DOI:10.1684/ecn.2025.0507 - 28 February 2026

Abstract Background: The expression of the interleukin-6 (IL-6) gene promoter and its variations in postmenopausal women of Javanese ethnicity remains unexplored. This study aimed to examine IL-6 promoter polymorphisms at positions -174G/C, -572G/C, -597A/G, and -634C/G and their associations to osteoporosis status in Javanese postmenopausal women. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted at an elderly integrated service post in Sidoarjo, Indonesia. Among 699 screened individuals, 66 postmenopausal women fulfilled the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Bone mineral density was assessed using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), and osteoporosis status was defined based on T-score values. IL-6 promoter polymorphisms… More >