Open Access

REVIEW

3D-Printed Porous Polymers: From Pore-Forming Strategies to Emerging Applications

Lihao Liu¹, Yiting Huang¹, Dong Wang², Zhongze Gu^1,3,*, Xiaojiang Liu^1,3,*
1 State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
2 State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, Key Laboratory of Biomedical Engineering of Hainan Province, School of Biomedical Engineering, Hainan University, Sanya, China
3 Institute of Microphysiological Systems, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
* Corresponding Author: Zhongze Gu. Email: ; Xiaojiang Liu. Email:
(This article belongs to the Special Issue: From Bioelectronics to Robotics: Functional Polymeric Materials for Future Interfaces)

Journal of Polymer Materials https://doi.org/10.32604/jpm.2026.088046

Received 27 June 2026; Accepted 24 August 2026; Published online 31 August 2026

Abstract

Porous polymers are critical engineering materials whose internal voids endow them with low density, mechanical compliance, and large specific surface areas, making them indispensable for high-performance applications like tissue scaffolds, separation membranes, and energy-absorbing structures. However, conventional pore-forming strategies rely on stochastic mechanisms, failing to achieve continuous porosity gradients or customized geometries. While three-dimensional (3D) printing overcomes these limitations by encoding design-driven macropores, it remains fundamentally constrained by hardware resolution, making the fabrication of submicron features or hierarchical architectures challenging when used alone. To overcome these barriers, hybrid strategies combining 3D printing with physicochemical pore-forming methods, including freeze-drying, salt leaching, gas foaming, and phase separation, have recently emerged. This review systematically synthesizes these recent advancements across three interconnected dimensions: (1) additive manufacturing platforms and their resolution-throughput trade-offs; (2) comprehensive pore-forming strategies involving materials and design; and (3) functional applications spanning biomedical engineering, environmental separation, energy devices, mechanical metamaterials, flexible electronics, and emerging photonic and robotic systems. By mapping processing strategies directly to pore scale, connectivity, and performance, this review serves as both a valuable technical reference and a practical selection guide for engineering tailored porous polymers.

---

Keywords

Porous polymers; 3D printing; physicochemical pore-forming; hierarchical architectures; biomedical engineering

---