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Open Access

ARTICLE

Constant-Time Symmetry Exploitation for NTT Twiddle Factors in ML-KEM: A Unified Cost Model for Embedded Deployments

Xiaobing Liang1, Yu Qin1, Shengdong Pan2, Liang Tan2,*
1 China Electric Power Research Institute Co., Ltd., Beijing, China
2 College of Computer Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, China
* Corresponding Author: Liang Tan. Email: email

Computers, Materials & Continua https://doi.org/10.32604/cmc.2026.082928

Received 27 March 2026; Accepted 05 June 2026; Published online 06 July 2026

Abstract

The standardization of the Module-Lattice-Based Key-Encapsulation Mechanism (ML-KEM, FIPS 203) creates urgent demand for efficient post-quantum cryptography on resource-constrained devices. In such deployments, twiddle-factor management in the Number Theoretic Transform (NTT) induces a practical trade-off: full tables reduce latency but consume read-only memory (ROM), while on-the-fly generation reduces ROM but increases arithmetic cost. This paper makes two contributions. First, we present a constant-time half-table strategy (Shalf) with branchless reconstruction logic and a formal indexing rule consistent with implementation. Second, we develop a Memory-Arithmetic Trade-off (MAT) model that unifies ROM, random-access memory (RAM), latency, energy, and side-channel risk into one device-aware objective. On ARM Cortex-M4, the proposed strategy reduces twiddle-factor ROM by 50% with a cycle overhead of about 3%–6% vs. full-table lookup in the same C framework. We additionally report cross-platform measurements on RISC-V and x86, where empirical best-strategy outcomes match MAT predictions. The resulting framework supports hardware-aware strategy selection with explicit assumptions on threat model and constant-time scope.

Keywords

Post-quantum cryptography; ML-KEM; symmetry; unified cost model

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