Submit

Login Login

Register Register

Home / Journals / OR / Online First / doi:10.32604/or.2026.075665
Journal Menu
Special Issues
Table of Content

All issues

Online First

2026

2025

2024

2023

2022

2021

2020

2019

2018

2017

2016

2015

Past Issues

Open Access

REVIEW

Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) in Cancer Immunology: Friend or Foe?

Hamid Tanzadehpanah1,2, Amir Hossein Esfandiari1,3, Seyed Sajjad Alavi Kakhki1,3, Reihaneh Alsadat Mahmoudian4, Hossein Shahdadi Sardou5,6, Zahra Mobarezi1,3, Piao Yang7, Zahra Meshkat1,3, Arastoo Vojdani1,3, Fatemeh Forouzanfar8, Khatere Mokhtari9, Hamed Manoochehri10, Hamed Afkhami11, Mahdieh Ameri Shahreza11, Sharafaldin Al-Musawi12, Mohsen Sheykhhasan11,*, Hanie Mahaki13,*
1 Antimicrobial Resistance Research Center, Basic Science Research Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
2 Department of Emergency Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
3 Department of Microbiology and Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
4 Cancer Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
5 Dental Materials Research Center, School of Dentistry, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
6 Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
7 Department of Molecular Genetics, College of Arts and Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
8 Neuroscience Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
9 Department of Cell and Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Faculty of Biological Science and Technology, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran
10 The Persian Gulf Marine Biotechnology Research Center, The Persian Gulf Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran
11 Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Qom University of Medical Sciences, Qom, Iran
12 College of Food Sciences, Al-Qasim Green University, Babylon, Iraq
13 Vascular and Endovascular Surgery Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
* Corresponding Author: Mohsen Sheykhhasan. Email: email; Hanie Mahaki. Email: email
(This article belongs to the Special Issue: Advances in Cancer Immunotherapy)

Oncology Research https://doi.org/10.32604/or.2026.075665

Received 05 November 2025; Accepted 25 August 2026; Published online 28 August 2026

Abstract

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) is a multifunctional cytokine with dual roles in tumor immunology, promoting both antitumor immunity and, in certain contexts, tumor progression. GM-CSF is vital for the differentiation, activation, and survival of dendritic cells, macrophages, and granulocytes—key players in initiating and sustaining immune responses against tumors. It enhances antigen presentation, stimulates T-cell activation, and serves as an adjuvant in cancer vaccines to strengthen antitumor immunity. However, the effects of GM-CSF within the tumor microenvironment (TME) are complex and context dependent. It can facilitate tumor growth by recruiting immunosuppressive myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), polarizing tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) toward a protumor phenotype, and promoting angiogenesis and metastasis. This review examines the paradoxical roles of GM-CSF in tumor immunology, its mechanisms of action, and its impact on immune cell populations and tumor progression. The aim of this study is to elucidate the dual roles of GM-CSF in tumor immunology, exploring its mechanisms of action, its impact on immune cell populations and tumor progression, and its therapeutic potential in cancer immunotherapy, including its application in combination therapies and vaccines, as well as the challenges associated with its protumor effects. Understanding the balance between the beneficial and detrimental effects of GM-CSF is essential for optimizing its clinical use and improving patient outcomes.

Graphical Abstract

Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) in Cancer Immunology: Friend or Foe?

Keywords

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; tumor immunology; myeloid-derived suppressor cells; tumor-associated macrophages; cancer immunotherapy

  • 129

    View

  • 42

    Download

  • 0

    Like

Related articles
Copyright© 2026 Tech Science Press
© 1997-2026 TSP (Henderson, USA) unless otherwise stated

Share Link