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Immunological Interactions of Carbon Nanomaterials: Translational Perspectives in Oncology Drug Development

Davide Frumento1,*, Ștefan Țălu2,*
1 Department of Education Sciences, University of Roma Tre, Rome, Italy
2 The Directorate of Research, Development and Innovation Management (DMCDI), Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
* Corresponding Author: Davide Frumento. Email: email; Ștefan Țălu. Email: email, email

Oncology Research https://doi.org/10.32604/or.2026.082542

Received 18 March 2026; Accepted 25 August 2026; Published online 01 September 2026

Abstract

Immunotherapy has revolutionized cancer treatment by enabling the immune system to target malignant cells. However, many patients show limited responses due to tumour heterogeneity, immune evasion, and the immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment. To address these challenges, nanotechnology has emerged as a promising strategy to enhance immunotherapeutic efficacy. Among nanomaterials, carbon nanomaterials (CNMs), including carbon nanotubes, graphene oxide, and fullerenes, have gained attention because of their unique physicochemical properties, such as high surface area, structural versatility, and ease of functionalization. These materials can modulate immune responses by influencing antigen presentation, cytokine production, and immune cell activation, while also serving as effective carriers for immunomodulatory agents. This review examines the role of CNMs in cancer immunotherapy, focusing on their immunomodulatory mechanisms, therapeutic applications, and delivery strategies. Particular emphasis is placed on preclinical evidence supporting their ability to enhance antitumour immune responses. The review also discusses key challenges related to safety, toxicity, and regulatory approval that may affect clinical translation. Finally, emerging approaches, including surface functionalization and combination therapies, are highlighted as potential strategies to improve targeting, reduce adverse effects, and facilitate integration with current immunotherapy regimens.

Graphical Abstract

Immunological Interactions of Carbon Nanomaterials: Translational Perspectives in Oncology Drug Development

Keywords

Carbon; cancer; drug; immunotherapy; nanomaterials

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