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REVIEW

The Immune-Centric Revolution in the Treatment of Musculoskeletal Disease: Autologous PBMNC and PRP-PBMNC Enriched—A Narrative Review

ANDREA DE MATTHAEIS1, LAURA REHAK2,*, MARIA BIANCHI3, ROSSANA PUTZULU3, NICOLA PICCIRILLO3,4, GIULIO MACCAURO1
1 Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, 00168, Italy
2 Athena Cell Therapy Technologies, Florence, 50126, Italy
3 Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio ed Ematologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario “A. Gemelli” IRCCS, Rome, 00168, Italy
4 Sezione di Ematologia, Dipartimento di Scienze Radiologiche ed Ematologiche, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Rome, 00168, Italy
* Corresponding Author: LAURA REHAK. Email: email
(This article belongs to the Special Issue: Tissue Regeneration and Vascularization: From Stem Cells to Functional Tissues)

BIOCELL https://doi.org/10.32604/biocell.2026.073783

Received 25 September 2025; Accepted 31 December 2025; Published online 22 January 2026

Abstract

For over two decades, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been recognised as the cornerstone of orthobiologic treatments for musculoskeletal diseases. However, clinical evidence increasingly indicates that MSC engraftment in inflamed tissues is minimal and transient, with effects mainly driven by paracrine and immunomodulatory mechanisms induced by macrophage efferocytosis. This evolving paradigm emphasises the immune system as the central orchestrator of tissue repair. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMNCs) have emerged as potent effectors of regenerative inflammation, mediating apoptotic cell clearance through efferocytosis, facilitating the transition of macrophages from pro-inflammatory (M1) to reparative (M2) phenotypes, and releasing angiogenic and trophic factors that support vascularisation, matrix remodelling, and functional restoration. Clinical studies in critical limb ischemia and diabetic foot provide compelling evidence that autologous PBMNC implantation yields meaningful outcomes in conditions refractory to conventional therapies. Concurrently, platelet-rich plasma (PRP), long regarded as a reservoir of growth factors, is now recognised as a potent recruiter of PBMNCs, where platelet-derived chemokines, such as Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1, (MCP-1), Regulated upon Activation, Normal T Cell Expressed and Secreted (RANTES), and Stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1), establish chemotactic gradients that attract immune cells to injury sites. Neutrophil-depleted, monocyte-enriched PRP formulations demonstrate therapeutic promise in the treatment of osteoarthritis, tendinopathy, and muscle injury. This review consolidates the current scientific rationale and clinical evidence supporting an immune-centric framework, in which PBMNCs, delivered alone or enriched within PRP, constitute a promising next-generation of orthobiologic therapies for musculoskeletal regeneration.

Keywords

Musculoskeletal disease; regenerative medicine; tissue engineering; peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMNC); platelet-rich plasma (PRP); mesenchymal stem cell (MSC); translational research; immune-centric revolution; monocytes; macrophages; treg

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